Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach
Seventh Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2011
Chapter 7
ENTROPY
Mehmet Kanoglu
University of Gaziantep
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objectives
• Apply the second law of thermodynamics to
processes.
• Define a new property called entropy to quantify the
second- law effects.
• Establish the increase of entropy principle.
• Calculate the entropy changes that take place
during processes for pure substances,
incompressible substances, and ideal gases.
• Examine a special class of idealized processes,
called isentropic processes, and develop the property
relations for these processes.
• Derive the reversible steady-flow work relations.
• Develop the isentropic efficiencies for various
steady-flow devices.
• Introduce and apply the entropy balance to 2
ENTROPY
Clasius
inequali
ty
Formal
definition
of entropy
the
change in
entropy
The system The equality in the Clausius inequality
considered in the holds for totally or just internally
development of the reversible cycles and the inequality for3
Clausius inequality. the irreversible ones.
Property )
(e.g.
A quantity whose
cyclic integral is
zero (i.e., a property
like volume)
Entropy is an
extensive property
of a system.
The entropy change between two The net
specified states is the same change in
whether the process is reversible volume (a
or irreversible. property)
A Special Case: Internally Reversible during
Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes a cycle
is always
zero.
This equation is particularly useful for
determining the entropy changes of
thermal energy reservoirs. 4
THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE
The equality holds for an
internally reversible process and
the inequality for an irreversible
process.
A cycle composed
of a reversible and
an irreversible
process.
Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible
process, and this generation is due entirely to the presence
The
of entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity
irreversibilities.
or zero. Can the entropy of a system during a process
decrease? 5
The entropy change of an
isolated system is the sum of
the entropy changes of its
components, and is never
less than zero.
A system and its
surroundings form an
isolated system.
The
increase of 6
Some Remarks about Entropy
1. Processes can occur in a certain
direction only, not in any direction. A
process must proceed in the
direction that complies with the
increase of entropy principle, that is,
Sgen ≥ 0. A process that violates this
principle is impossible.
2. Entropy is a nonconserved property, and
there is no such thing as the
conservation of entropy principle. Entropy
is conserved during the idealized
reversible processes only and
increases during all actual processes.
3. The performance of engineering
systems is degraded by the presence
The entropy change of
of irreversibilities, and entropy
a system can be
generation is a measure of the
negative, but the
magnitudes of the irreversibilities
entropy generation
during that process. It is also used to
cannot.
establish criteria for the performance 7
of engineering devices.
Example 7-2
Entropy Generation
during Heat Transfer
Processes
8
ENTROPY CHANGE OF PURE SUBSTANCES
Entropy is a property, and thus
the value of entropy of a
system is fixed once the state
of the system is fixed.
Schematic of the T-s diagram for
water.
The entropy of a pure Entropy
substance is determined change
from the tables (like other 9
properties).
Example 7-3
Entropy Change of
a Substance in a
Tank
10
Example 7-4
Entropy Change during
a constant-pressure
process
11
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
A process during which the entropy remains constant
is called an isentropic process.
During an internally
reversible, adiabatic
(isentropic) process, The isentropic process appears as
the entropy remains a
constant. vertical line segment on a T-s 12
Example 7-5
Isentropic expansion of
steam in a
Turbine
13
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY
On a T-S
diagram, the
area under
the process
curve
represents
the heat
transfer for
internally
reversible
processes.
For adiabatic steady-flow
devices, the vertical
distance ∆h on an h-s
diagram is a measure of
work, and the horizontal
distance ∆s is a measure of
Mollier diagram: The h-s
irreversibilities. 1
diagram 4
Example 7-6
The T-S diagram of the Carnot
cycle
1
5
a measure of molecular
WHAT IS ENTROPY? disorder,
or molecular randomness
more
Boltzman
disordered n relation
less
predictable
A pure crystalline substance at
absolute zero temperature is in perfect
order, and its entropy is zero (the third law
of thermodynamics).
less disordered
more
predictable
The level of
molecular disorder
Disorganized energy does not create
(entropy) of a
much useful effect, no matter how
substance increases
large it is. 1
as it melts or 6
The paddle-wheel work
done on a gas increases
the level of disorder
(entropy) of the gas, and
thus energy is degraded
In the absence of during this process.
friction, raising a During a heat
weight by a transfer process,
rotating shaft the net entropy
does not create increases. (The
any disorder increase in the
(entropy), and entropy of the
thus energy is not cold body more
degraded during than offsets the
this process. decrease in the
entropy
the hot of 1
7
18
THE T ds RELATIONS
the first T ds, or Gibbs
equation
The T ds relations are valid
for both reversible and the second T ds
irreversible processes and equation
for both closed and open
systems. Differential
changes in
entropy in terms
of other
19
properties
ENTROPY CHANGE OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
Liquids and solids can
be approximated as
incompressible substances
Sinc for liquids and since their specific
e solids volumes remain nearly
constant during a
process.
For an isentropic process of an incompressible
substance
20
THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
From the first T ds relation From the second T ds
relation
A broadcast
from channel
IG.
21
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
Entropy change of an ideal gas
on a unit–mole basis
Under the constant-
specific- heat assumption,
the specific heat is
assumed to be constant at
some average value. 22
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate
Analysis)
Setting this eq.
equal to
zero, we get
The isentropic relations of
ideal gases are valid for the
isentropic processes of ideal
gases only.
23
En
d
24
Final
examination
[on October 4, 2013 9:00-1200]
1) Closed books and Closed notes
2) 3-hour exam
3) Only provided calculators are allowed
4) 5 problems
1 Definitions and Tables
2 Energy analysis of closed systems [Chapter 4 ]
3Mass and energy analysis of CV [Chapter 5,
excluding 5-5] 4-4 The 2nd law of Thermodynamics
[Chapter 6, excluding 6-5] 4-5 Entropy [Chapter 7]
25
Practice problems (don’t have to
submit)
1) 7-20
2) 7-21
3) 7-30
4) 7-60
5) 7-94
26
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume
exp(s°/R) The use of Pr
is the data for
relative calculating the
pressure final temperature
Pr . during an
isentropic
process.
The use of vr data
for calculating the
T/Pr is the
final temperature
relative volume
specific
vr . during an 2
7
REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK
When kinetic
and potential
energies are
negligible
The larger
the specific
For the steady flow of a liquid volume, the
through a device that involves no greater the
work interactions (such as a pipe work Reversible work
section), the work term is zero produced relations for
(Bernoulli equation): (or steady- flow and
consumed) closed systems.
by a steady- 28
Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume
the Least Work when the Process Is Reversible
Taking heat input and work output
positive:
Actual
Reversible
A reversible turbine delivers
more work than an
Work-producing devices such as irreversible one if both
turbines deliver more work, and operate between the same
work- consuming devices such end states.
as pumps and compressors
require less work when they 2
operate reversibly. 9
MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
When kinetic
and potential
energies are
negligible
Isentropic (Pvk = constant):
Polytropic (Pvn =
constant):
Isothermal (Pv = P-v diagrams of isentropic,
constant): polytropic, and isothermal
compression processes
between the same pressure
The adiabatic compression (Pvk = limits.
constant) requires the maximum work
and the isothermal compression (T =
constant) requires the minimum.
30
Why?
Multistage Compression with Intercooling
The gas is
compressed in
stages and cooled
between each stage
by passing it
through a heat
exchanger called an
intercooler.
P-v and T-
s diagrams for a
two- stage
steady-flow
compression
process.
To minimize compression work during two-stage
compression, the pressure ratio across each
stage of the compressor must be the same.
31
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-
FLOW DEVICES
The isentropic process
involves no irreversibilities and
serves as the ideal process for
adiabatic devices.
Isentropic
Efficiency
of
Turbines
The h-s diagram
for the actual
and isentropic
processes of an
adiabatic 3
2
Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps
When kinetic
and potential
energies are
negligible
For a
pum
Isotherm p The h-s
al
diagram of the
efficienc
actual and
y
isentropi
c processes
of an
adiabati
c
are
compressoCan you use isentropic efficiency
sometimes
r.for a non-adiabatic compressor?
intentionally
cooled
Compressors
to Can you use isothermal
minimize the efficiency for 3
an adiabatic compressor? 3
Isentropic Efficiency
of Nozzles
If the inlet velocity of
the fluid is small
relative to the exit
The h-s
velocity, the energy
diagram of the
balance is
actual and
isentropi
c processes of
Then an adiabatic
, nozzle.
A substance
leaves actual
nozzles at a higher
temperature (thus
a lower velocity)
34
as a result of
ENTROPY BALANCE
Entropy Change of a
System, ∆Ssystem
When the properties of
the system are not
uniform
Energy and
entropy balances
for a system.
35
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
1 Heat Transfer
Entropy transfer by heat
transfer:
Entropy transfer by work:
Heat transfer is always
accompanied by entropy transfer
in the amount of Q/T, where T is
the boundary temperature.
No entropy accompanies work as it
crosses the system boundary. But
entropy may be generated within the
system as work is dissipated into a 3
less useful form of energy. 6
2 Mass Flow
Entropy transfer by mass:
When the properties of the
mass change during the
process
Mass contains entropy as well
as energy, and thus mass
flow into or out of system is
always accompanied by
energy and entropy transfer.
37
Entropy Generation, Sgen Entropy
generation outside
system boundaries
can be accounted
for by writing an
entropy balance
on an extended
system that
includes the
system and its
immediate
surroundings.
Mechanisms of entropy transfer
for a
general system. 38
Closed Systems
The entropy change of a closed system during a process is
equal to the sum of the net entropy transferred through the
system boundary by heat transfer and the entropy generated
within the system boundaries.
39
Control Volumes
The entropy of a
substance always
increases (or
remains constant
in the case of a The entropy of a control
reversible volume changes as a
process) as it result of mass flow as
flows through a well as heat transfer.
single-stream,
adiabatic, steady- 4
flow device. 0
EXAMPLES
Entropy balance for heat
transfer through a wall
Entropy balance for
a throttling process
41
Entropy Generated when a Hot
Block Is Dropped in a Lake
or
Entropy Generation in a Heat Exchanger
42
Entropy
generation
associated with
a heat transfer
process
Graphical representation of entropy generation during a heat
transfer process 4
3
Summary
• Entropy
• The increase of entropy principle
• Entropy change of pure substances
• Isentropic processes
• Property diagrams involving entropy
• What is entropy?
• The T ds relations
• Entropy change of liquids and solids
• The entropy change of ideal gases
• Reversible steady-flow work
• Minimizing the compressor work
• Isentropic efficiencies of steady-flow
devices
• Entropy balance 4
4
