‘The atoms of an clement, which have the sume atomic number but different mass numbers, are called tsolopes 1,0%,,0", 0" 49,0", fam) PO, P,P The atoms whose nuclei have same number of neutrons are called tsotones The atoms, which have same mass number but different temic numbers, are called isabars (a) Wand Le a (i) Land Be! a (iv)Ge™ and Se ‘The atom mass unt (am u) sa very small unit of mass and itis found 1a be very canvement in nuclear physics Atomic mass unit is defined 28 1/12% of the mass of one ,C atom Acconding to Avogadco's hypothesis, number of atoms in 12 g ‘of ,C* ésequal to Avogadronumber ¢ 6023 = 10° Aun) Arana “Therefore, the mass of one carbon atoen Cp as 1002878 = 10 hye Therefore, Lama ape omrorset0Ag oF Lamy = 1 660565» 1 kg Accanding to Einstem’s mass-energy equivalence relation, the energy equisalent of mass ms given by’ E= me! Where cis speed of ight Suppose that m= | am w= 1 660565 » 10""ke Since, c= 2.995 * 10" ms" quivalent of 1 am.uis iver by Lamu ® (1 660565 * 107 hy) x (2.998 * 10! ms! = 14925 « 18) Singe, I MeV 602 + 10°F, wehave Or Lamu 931 SMV ‘The volume ofthe nucleus s irecly proportional tothe numbce of nucleons (mass number} constituting the nucleus If Ris the radius of the nucleus having mass number A. then 4 aR EA 3 Or R=R AM Mass of the nucleus of the atom of mass number A= A amu =A 1 660565" 10" kp IPR tsradius ofthe nucleus then ‘Volume of nucleus = taw=4 tana . ; aRZA Taking R= 1.1 = 10m, we have mass af nucleus Deensity of the nucleus, 9 TT racteus =A 1 66065 10° Jah 10") =297> 10! ign" (independent of AY A ert © The density of the nuclei ofall the atoms is same asi is independent of mass number © The high density of the nucteus (+ 10" kg mr") suggests the compactness of the nucleus. Such examples of high densities are met in the form of peutron stars. 1B Maw detec ‘The difference between the sum of the masses of the mucleons constituting a nucleus and the rest mass of the nucleus ts knamin as amass defect tts denuated by’.Am Let us calculate the mass defect mease of the nucleus of anatom X* The nucleus of the atom contains Z protons and (A-Z) heuttons Thetefore, fm (X és mass ofthe sucleus of the atom ,X*, then the mass defect is grven by Ams 2m, +(A-Zimemt.X]= MODERN PHYSICS) The binding energy of a nucteus may be defined as the energy equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus may be measured as the work required 1a be done to separate the nucteon an infinite Untance apart, so that very no longer mntract with cach other 17am 1s mass defect of a nucleus, then according to Eumstern’s mass-energy relation, binding energy of the nucleus = Am c! {injoutey Here, mass defect Am has to be measured in Lalogram thease, mass defect isimeauured in a mu, then Binding energy ofthe nucleus= Am = 931 $ (in MeW) Binding energy = [Zm, ¢ (A=Z)m.=m(,N%)]* 931 The binding energy per nucleon is the average energy requited {lo extract one nucicon from the nucteus binding energy Thus, binding nergy per nucleon = PMI Packing fraction = (mass defect YA. ‘The spontancous transformation ofan element into another with the emission of same parce (or particles) oF electromagnetic raahation 1s called natural radioactivity Rutherford and Soddy studied the pherwmenion of radioactivity in details and formulated the following Laws, known as the Laws of radioactive decay 1 Radioactivity ts a spontancous phenomenon and one cannot predict, when a particular atom in a given radioactive sample will undergo destuntegration. Whena radtosctrve atom disintegrates, eteran u-paricle (wucleusofhelrun)er a feparnicte (electron) is emutted 3 Theemissnon of ance-particte by aradwactive atom results ih a daughter atom, whose atomic uriber i 2 units less ‘and mass number ts 4 units less than that of the parent ahve 4 Theemissionofa f-purticle by aradioactive atom results in daughter atom, whose atoenie number is 1 unit more but mass number is same as that of the patent atom foseem ax” $5 The number of atoms disintegrating per second of a radinactive sample al any time ts directly proportional to the mumber of atoms present at that time The tate of disintegration of the sample cannot be altered by’ changing the extemal factors, such as pressure, temperature ele, Itis Known as radioactive decay law According to radaactive decay law. the fate of disintegration at any time tisdstecly proportional tothe number of atom present Where the constant of proportionally 2, is called decay constant ofthe radioactive sample Its alsa kran\nasdis meg aton costar or transformation constant. Its value depends upon the nature of the radioactive sample Further, the negative sign indicates that the numberof the atoms ofthe sample deereases ith the passage oftme, Fromenation wee SNe a oO bp Sey o or a Hence, radhoactive decay constant ofa substance (radioactive) may bbe defined as the rats of ts mstantanenus tte af disintegration the number of aloms preset at that time Again) neta. then, N=] MeNy= Nfl2 718} = 0.368, Hence, radioactive decay constant of a substance may alo be defined as the reciprocal of the time, afer which the number of atoms of aradioactive substance decreases to 0 368 (or 36 8 thetr number present tally Consider that a radioactive sample contains N, atoms at time 1=0 Then, the number of atoms leftbehind after time is giver, etrom the definition of half life, 1 follows that whent = 1.N# NZ ‘citing the above condition in equation, we have 2.303 «0,3010=0.693 Thus, half life of radioactive substance is inversely proportional lls decay constant ands characteristic property af li nucleus I cannot be altered by any known method TAA Mean life oraverage lle The average Infe of a radioactive substance is defined as the average lime for which the nuclet of the alomsof the radioactive substance exist. It is defined by The actinity af a radioactive substance may be defined as the fate al which the nuclet of is atoms i the sample drsintegrale Ifa radioactive sample contains N atoms at any time 1, then ts activity atime tis definedas A= ~ 2S at ‘The negative sign shows that withthe passage of time, the activity of the radioactive substance decreases Since according tthe ralioactine decay, law SS AN the equation may be expressedas AS ).N Since, N#N, ewe have AaINw Atay! oO The ‘ivily of a radioactive sample may be expressed ax disintegration per second The pracucal unit of activity of a radhoactve sample ws cute ct] The activity of a radioactive sample 1s ealled ene cune, it undergoes 37 = 10" disintegrauons per second. Thus, Tcurte (cr) = 3.7 = 10° dusintegrations s* There isalso another unit of radimactivity, called Rutherford (ru) The actiity ofa radioactive sample tsealled one Rutherford, if lundergoes 10" disintegration per second V Rutherford (rd) = 10" disintegration = ‘The process of splitting of a beavy nucleus into twa nuclei of neatly comparable masses with {iberation of energy jx called ruclear fission Hr] UPN > Bat Jee + 3a!) Neutton repetuction factor is defined as the ratwo of the rate of preuction of neutrons to the tate of loss of neutrons. Thus, f production of neutrons rate of loss of neutrons fission reaction will be steady, ease k= | Inease k> 1 the fission reaction will accelerate and it will retard, incase k <1 ‘Maun ports nd herr functrons = 1 Fuel. Iisa fissionable matenal mostly U>". 2 Moderator 11 és used to slow down the peutions released ‘dunng the fission The most common moderators are water, heavy Water and graphite 3 (Control Rods these rods are cadmium or boron, which control thecl reactton by absorbing neutrons. 4 ‘Coolant and Heat Exchange The coolant takes auay heat from the reactor core and in turn heats the water in the heat exchanger to printice scam The commonly ined cooks ase hupnd abu and heavy water s Radiation Shichling These are thick concrete walls, which stop the radiations fram going out 1.12.2 Radiation Hazards 1 The exposure ta fadioation induces delecterious genetic effects The strong: exposure can cause | He exposure to fast and slow ncutrons can cause blindness 4 The exposure tor neutrons, protons and cesparticles can cause damage to ted blood cells The exposure to a-paruces can cause disastrous effets 6 The song exposutes ta protons and neutrons can sause sevious damage to productive organs= —_—_—— SO ean ees 72 Safety Meawures (rum Radiation Nazards Following precautions are observed by the workers engaged in this field 1 The radhoisotopes ate transferred in thick walled lead somtainers and are kept in toons with thick walls of leads The radiorsotopes are handled with the help of remote control devices 3 The workers are asked to wear lead aprons, 4 The radioactive contamination of the work area is avoided at all costs peared Whena potemual difference af Hto 15 kV esapplied across the two electrodes of a discharge tube and pressure is reduced to0 Ofmmof mercury, the rays knowns exthode ray sare emitted from the cathode These rays ate independent ofthe nature of the gas in the discharge tube and thear direetion Of propagation Is nat affected by the position of the anode Cathode rays have the following properties 1 Cathode rays travel along straight lanes and east sharps shados of the abjects pliced in thetr path Cathode rays are shot out normally from the surface of the cathode 3 The direction of the cathode rays is not affected try the postion of the anode 4 The cathode rays exert mechanical pressure S$ The cathode rays produce heat, when they fall upon matter 6 The cathode rays are deflected by electne and magnetic fields 7. When cathonle rays strike a solid target of high atornic weight such as tungsten, they produce a highly penetrating radiation called the Nerays ugh which they pass 8 Cathode rays anise the gas 9 Cathode eays can eveite fluorescence 10 Cathode rays can produce chemical changes H Cathode rays can penetrate through thin sheets of matter without puncturing them 12 Cathode rays are found to have velocity upto one tenth ofthe velocity of fight FREE ELECTRONS IN METALS Hloctiomn isa fundamental constant ofthe atom A imetal contains fice elections which mone abou freely through the atomic spaces imarandom fashion [Hutassoonas an electron tcaves the metal, invimediately 3m equal positwe charge ts peoduced on the sutfice ofthe metal Asa emul, the electronas pulled back into the metal and hence remainscontfined toit The pull onthe electrons atthe sunfsce Ws foursd wo depend on the nature af metal sutfice aid is described hy a characteristic of the metal, called werk function The minimum energy, which must be supplied tothe electron sey that it can just come out of the metal surface is called the work Function of the metal ‘This process 1s called electron emission and may be achieved in the following ways, (1 —Theemoionie emission In this process of cleetron he additional ener is supped inthe form of beat ‘Theemitted electrons ae known as thermo-elections (ui) Photoelectric emission In this process, as already discussed, the additional encegy ts supplied by means of electromagnetic radiation The emitted electrons are known as photoelectrons (a) Secondary emission, wv this process, the fast moving electrons on collision with the metal surface knock out electrons, called the secondary electrons (yy Field crisis Pesta tans ‘The phenomenon af ejection from a metal surface, when light of sulfictentlyhigh frequeney falls yon its knownasthe photoelectric fiset The electrons so emitted were called photoslectrons Experimental Study of Photoclectrie Effect: The apparatus consists of an evacunted glass tube fitted with Ie electrodes ‘The electreale E15 called emitting electioae andthe other electrode Ciscalled collecting elecuode Whena suitable raduitin s inculent on the electrode F, electrons are ejected from it The electrons, which have sufficient kinetic nergy, teach the electrode C despite ns negative potarily The potential difference hetween the two electrodes acts as the tetarding potential Asthe collecting electrode 1s made more andl ‘mote nepative, fewer and fewer electrons will reach the cathante and the photoelectric eurtent recorded by the ammeter wth fall In ease, the eetarding potenital equals V,, called the stopping potential, po election will reach the cathode and! the eurtent will become zero. Insuchacase, the work done by stopping potential is equal to the iianirnu kinetic energy offthe electrons ie eV,= 12 my,Light Rays 1 Photortec on The emission of photoelectrons lakes place only, when: the frequency ofthe incident raduiom is above a certain ‘stitial value, characteristic of that metal The critical salue of frequency ts knawn as the threshold frequency forthe meta ofthe emitting electrode 2 The emission of phatocleeteons starts as soon as light falls om nsetal suefuce 3 The mayintum kinehe enctgy with which an electron #8 emt froma metal surface isinepenlent ofthe sntensity of the light and depends only upon is frequency 4 The umber of photoelectrons emited 1 photoelectric current 1s indepenclent of the frequency of the incident light and depends only upor its intensity A photoelcetric cell is an arrangement, which convents light energy intoetectnical energy, Photoelectric cells are of allowing thie typex 1 Photoemssive cells 2 Phorovoltare cells 3 Photoconductive cells A photo emissive cell may be of vacuum type o gas filled type. Light Rays ee — — Working - Photoeminsive Celts: It consists oftwoclectrodes, a cathode C an anode a enclosed in a highly evacuated glass bulb The cathode C esa semreylindiical plate coated with a photosensitive material, such asa layer Thus sealled de-lroglie telation of cesium deposited on stlver oxide The anade A is in the form of a wite, so that it does not obstruct the path of the light falling on the emthode When light of frequency above the threshold frequency for the cathode surface 1s mcufent on the eatbode, photoetections are emitted fa potential difference ofabout 1OV isapptied between the anode and cathode, the photoelectrons are attracted tawards the anode ant the mictoammnetet connected in the eitcuil stl fecord the curtent 43 Applications of Pant oelec 1 thes wed ina television studio to convert the light and shade of the obyect mto electric currents for transmission of pte tts used in a photographic camera for the automatic adjustment of aperture 3 Hesased for automatic counting of te number of persons entering a hall, a stadium ete 4 Hts used for automane switching of street lights and tralfie signals Itasused forraising a firealarm inthe event of accidental fire en buildings, factories ete 6 Wis used in burglar’s alarms for houses, bank and treasuries ER ah The various phenomena concerning radiation ean be drvided into three parts (The phenamena such as interference, diffrac polarisation ete in w places with radeation itself’ Such phenomena ean be explained on the basis of electromagnetic (wave) nature of tadiation only imeraction of radiation takes (0) The phenomena such ay photoelectne effect, compton effect, etc an which enteraction of radiation takes place ‘with matter, Such phenomena ean be explained on the basis of quantum (particle nature of radon (ia) The phenomena such as rectilinear propagation, feflection, refraction, ete an which neither the interscton of radiation takes place with radiation, nor of radiation with matter Such phenomena can be explained on the basis of either of the two natures of the radiahon‘wsHroghe put forward a bold hypothesis that matter should Iso possess dual nature he following observations led him to the duatity hypothesis for matter | The whole energy inthis universe is in the form of matter and electromagnetic radiation The nature loves. symmetry. As the radiation has got shual nature, matter should also passess dus! nature Vius, according to de-Broghe, a wave 18 associated with every moving purticle “These waves are called de-Proglic, matter waves: According to quantum theary af of a photon 1s given by: Eh waves of f radiation, energy i} Further, the energy of a retatvistic panicle is given by: Ee mic sp’ +e Sings photon tsa particle of zero rest mass, setting m, * 0 inthe above equation, Wwe have =pe & From equation (i) and (it) we have pe=ho (neu (i le wavelength is given by h mo ww) ‘Thisiscalled de-Broglic relation Aghter the particle, greater is ws de-Lroglie wavelength ‘The faster the particle moves, smaller is ds desBroglic wavelength ” 3 The de-Broghe wavelength of a-particle is independent of the charge of natute of the purticle ‘The matter waves are not electomagnetic in nature. Ifthe ‘slocity of the particle 1s comparable to the velocity of Hight, then mass ofthe particle ts given by ne View te? 62 De-Brogiie Wavelength of Electron Consider that an electron of mass m and charge ¢ is accelerated through a potential difference VICE 1 the energy sequired by the patticle, then Ee oO Ifuis the velocity of electron, then lamuiorw= & i) Now, de-Broglie wavelength of electron is given by b myzeim O& ae iy substituting the Value of E, we get h he mev Aw) Setting m= 9 1 * 10" ky.e= 16" 10 Candh=662 = 10s, we gel 227 eT oD For example, the de-troglie wavelength of electrons, when accelerated through a potential difference of 100 val, will be 9227 de 127A viog ‘Thus, the wavelength of de-Heoglie wave associated with 100 eV cleetrons ts of the order of the wavelength af X-rays, THOMSON’S ATOM MODEL ‘The positive charge isuniformly distributed over the entire sphere arid the eleetronsate embedded inthe sphere of positive charges Just ke seeds ina watermelon or plums in the pudding For thisEss Teason, Thomson's atom madel also known as plum-pudding madel Thetotal postive charge itsule the atoen is equal wo the (otal negative charge earned by elections, 0 that every atom is electrically neural If the atom gets stighity Pettutbed, the electrons in the atoms oscillate about theat equiltbrium position and result onthe emission of radiation of nthe form of mfrared, visible oF ultrasiolet It had to be discarded, because of the following reasons 1 could not explain the origin of the spectral lines in the form of series asin case of hydrogen atom 2 Ieould net wecount forthe scattering of a-particlesthroush farge angles as in case of Rutherford’s a-scat experiment Ea reer Greet UMAR Aaa Host of u-particles were found to pass throu any appreciable deflection the fold 2 nt asparticlesin passing through the gold foil undergodifferemamountsof deflections. Alarge number ofa-paruictes suffer famly large deflections 3 Avery small number of u-particles {about 1 in 8000) Practically retracted their paths or suffered deflection of treatly 180" 4 The graph between the total number of u=particles NiO) scattered through angle O and the seattering angle O was, found to be as shown in fie 1 N| tee ‘The experimental observations led Rutherford to the following conclusions = 1 Since most the uspurticles passed undeviated, the atoen hasa lot of empty space init ” ¢ fast and the heavy «-patticles could be deflected even through 180", the whole of the positive charge am Practically the entire mass of the atom was confined ten extumelysmallcentralcore Itwascalled nucleus. Since | {mabout $000 u-partices is deflected through 180°, the size of the ructeus ts about 1/10000h ofthe size of the atom ril's Atom Model Onihe basis of the results of escattering experiment, Rutherford suggested the following picture af the atom 1 Atorumay be regarded asa sphere of diameter 10°" but whole of the positive charge and almost the entire mass ‘of the atom ts concentrated in a small central eote called nucleus having diameter of about 10° m. ‘The nucleus 1s surrounded by electrons. In other words, the electrons are spread over the remaining part of the atom leaving plenty of empty space an the atom 5.2 Drawbacks of Rutherfard’s Atom Madel 1 When the electrons revolve round the nucleus, they are continuously accelerated towards the centre of the nucleus According te Lorents, an accelerated charged particle should radiate energy conuinanusly Therefore, In the atom, a revolving electron should continuousty ermit energy and hence the radius oF ts path should goon decreasing and ultimately ut should fall inte the macleus However, electrons revolve tound the nucleus without falling mto at Therefore, Rutherford's atom model eannot explain the stability afthe atoms Ifthe Rutherford's atom model is true, the electron can tevolve in arbits of all possible fads and hence it should ‘mit continuous grergy spesinam However, the atoms Tike hydrogen possess line spectrum Distance of Closest Approach Consulet the anexpurticle of mass possesses initial velocity when it tsata large distance from the nucleus ofan ator having. atomic number ALthe distance of closest approach, the kinetic energy of a-paruicle 18 completely converted into potential encrgy- Mathematieally ‘The scatterang of an alpha particle from the nucleus of an atom depends upon the impact parameter5 MODERN PHYSICS defined ay the vector of the alpha parte fromthe centre of the nucleus, when its far away from the ate Wis denoted by b 1 Ze? cs? Wm The following mterference can be drawn from the above equation 1 Ifthe umpact parameter bis Large, then cot 012 is also large Ve the angle of scatterang 0 is anal and vice-versa ‘Thus, #fan a-particle has large impact parameter, pets scattered through a very small angle and may practically go undeviated and af the a-particle has small impact Parameter, «twill be scattered through a large angle Ie the impact parameter b 48 zero, then cor O/2 = 0 oF 2 = HF oF O18" PHOTON A photon isa packet of energy E Whete hm @ 62 = 10 Jsis Mank's constant and wis frequency of the photon 12.45 wavelength of the photon, then, ¢ = U2, Hence, c= 3 + 10"ms"Javelocity offight Therefore, E-= his he? Ii possesses encrgy given by, Energy of a photon is usually eypressed in electron volt (eV) teVe6s 10d ‘The bigger untts are he and MeV Wee 16 *10and } MeV= 16 10) Reems Bohr adopted Rutherford model of the atom & added some arbitrary conditions These conditions are known as his postulates 4) Theelectron ma stable orbit dacs not radiate energy A stable otbit ts that in which the angular momentum of the electron about nucleus is an integral (n)- multiple of a (ne0) 2e (lil) ‘The electron can absorb or radiate energy only if the cleetron jumps from a lower toa higher orbit or falls from ahigher toa lower onbit (h) The energy emitted of absorbed 1s a light photon of frequency v and of energy FE: = hy. (0) L, = angular momentum in the n® orbit =n (i) £,= radius of n® cireular orbit =(0 $29") 8 a ee 15 6eV (ii) E, Energy ofthe clecroninthent orbit = T= te tafe Total energy of the electron in an atom is negative, indicating that itis bound Hiding t (b) , = Energy emitted when an electron yumps bit to n/Morbit (0,0) ae ee frequency of spectral line emitied I x eR 3-4] ¥= wave ma [ no of waves an unit length (1m)] Where R= Rydbery’s constant for hydrogen = 1097 107 mt (6) For hydrogen like atom/species of atomic number Z. R, = RZ Rydhenfsconat for element of timc mo 7EA If motion of the muctews is also considered, then m is replaced by st Whete p= reduced mass of eleetron~ nucleus system = mMU! (mM) Inthis ease Fy (-13.6 ev) Speciral Series (i) Lyman Serie [ Ultraviolet tegion = (i) Balmer Series + (Landing orbit n=2) Visible region @ 4 snp? Pavcham Series : (Landing orbit n= 3) Inthe near infiaredregion = R] =|, n> 3 yal" Gh) Bracket Series : (Landing orbit n=4) Inthe mad infrared region ¥ = fe 0) Plund Series In far infrared region F = af In all these series n, = Ay ¢ 1 1s thea line = n,+2 19 the (ine = n,43 is theyline... ele where n, = Landing orbit Bo Wavelength tpn That there is a minimum wavelength below which no Noray 4s emitted ‘This ts called the cuff wavelength of the threshold wavelength Certain sharply defined wavelengths, the intensaty of X-rays ts very large as marked ‘These X-rays are known as characteristics X-rays Other wavelengths the intensity vanes gradually and these Nerays ate called continuous xays he a 1 » % 4 9 60