Chapter 2 Beef Production Systems in the Philippines

A. Types
Cow calf operation- Cow-Calf Operations
Cow-calf operations are the foundation of beef production in the Philippines. In this system, breeding
herds of cows and bulls are raised to produce calves, which are then raised until they are weaned from
their mothers at 7-8 months old. After weaning, the calves can be sold immediately or kept for a few more
months before being sold for fattening.

Key characteristics of cow-calf operations in the Philippines include:

1. Using grade or Philippine cows and purebred or high-grade bulls
2. Raising breeding herds primarily in areas with abundant grazing lands, such as provinces like
Nueva Ecija, Masbate, and Mindoro
3. Feeding breeding herds mostly grass with little to no grain or fattening feeds

Cow-calf operations aim to produce stockers and feeders for the beef supply chain. About 81.4% of the
cattle population in the Philippines comes from smallholder cow-calf farms. The cow-calf stage is the
first and most fundamental step in beef production in the country.
Breeder Farm Operations
Breeder farm operations for cattle focus on producing high-quality breeding stock, primarily purebred or
registered animals.
Purpose
The primary goal of a breeder farm operation is to produce animals that will serve as breeding stock for
other ranchers. This involves careful selection and management of both male and female cattle to ensure
the production of superior offspring.
Key Characteristics
Breeder farms typically raise only purebred cattle. This means that breeding is conducted within the
same breed to maintain genetic integrity and improve desirable traits, such as growth rate, feed efficiency,
and disease resistance.
Breeders implement strict selection criteria for calves, ensuring that only the best individuals are retained
for breeding. This includes evaluating traits such as conformation, fertility, and overall health.
Breeder operations require significant space and capital investment. A larger herd is necessary to allow
for effective selection of breeding stock, and suitable facilities must be maintained for the animals.
Management Practices
Effective breeding management is crucial. This includes understanding the reproductive cycles of cattle,
implementing artificial insemination or natural breeding techniques, and managing the health of both the
breeding stock and the calves.
Proper nutrition is vital for the health of breeding stock and the quality of the offspring. A balanced diet
that meets the nutritional needs of pregnant and lactating cows is essential for successful breeding
operations.
Health Programs
A comprehensive animal health program should be in place to minimize mortality rates and ensure the
productivity of the herd. Regular veterinary check-ups and vaccinations are part of this program.
Types of Breeder Farms
Confinement Systems
Some breeder farms operate in complete confinement, where cattle are kept in controlled environments to
optimize breeding conditions and minimize disease risks.
Integrated Systems
Breeder farms can also be integrated with other agricultural practices, such as planting trees or crops,
which can provide additional benefits like shade and forage for the cattle

Feedlot Farming/ Fattening Operation

Feedlot farming is a specialized cattle management system focused on the intensive fattening of cattle for
meat production. This operation is designed to maximize weight gain in a controlled environment,
typically using a high-energy diet primarily composed of grains.
Key Features of Feedlot Farming
Structure and Environment
Feedlots can vary in size, from small operations holding under 1,000 cattle to large concentrated animal
feeding operations (CAFOs) that accommodate thousands. The cattle are housed in pens or barns, which
allows for close monitoring of their health and feeding.
Feeding Practices
Cattle in feedlots are typically fed a high-energy diet that includes grains, legumes, and other supplements
to promote rapid weight gain. The feeding regimen is carefully managed, often involving multiple
feedings per day to ensure optimal growth. The goal is to achieve a daily weight gain of around 1.4 to 1.6
kg, depending on the breed and initial weight of the cattle.
Phases of Operation
Feedlot operations generally consist of several phases:
Backgrounding Phase
Weaner calves are initially placed in smaller pastures to build immunity and adjust socially before
transitioning to the feedlot.
Fattening Phase
After backgrounding, cattle are moved to the feedlot for intensive feeding, usually lasting around 130
days, during which they are fed a balanced diet to maximize growth.
Selection Criteria
When selecting cattle for feedlot operations, factors such as age, breed, health status, and initial body
weight are crucial. Common breeds used include Holstein and Angus, known for their rapid growth rates.

Systems of Production for Cattle

Extensive System
The extensive system for cattle production, commonly referred to as ranching, is a significant method
utilized in the Philippines. This system is characterized by the use of large grazing areas where cattle are
raised primarily on pasture with minimal supplementary feeding.
Key Features of Extensive Cattle Production
Grazing Management
Land Utilization
Extensive cattle operations are typically situated in regions with abundant, low-cost grazing lands. These
areas are often sparsely populated or consist of hilly terrain unsuitable for intensive farming. Provinces
such as Nueva Ecija, Masbate, Mindoro, and Bukidnon are notable for their extensive ranching practices.
Low Input System
Cattle in this system are primarily fed on natural grasses and forage, with little to no grain or
concentrated feed. This approach reduces feeding costs and is more sustainable in terms of resource use.
Integrating livestock into crops
Integrating livestock into crop or plantation agriculture can provide numerous benefits for both the
animals and the crops. Here are some key ways this integration can be achieved:
Grazing Under Plantation Trees
Allowing livestock to graze under the canopy of trees in plantations is a common form of crop-livestock
integration, especially in Southeast Asia. Studies have shown this practice can:
1. Increase overall production from the plantation
2. Reduce weed control costs by up to 40% compared to mechanical or chemical methods
3. Provide additional income from meat production

Examples:
Cattle and goats grazing under oil palm or rubber plantations in Malaysia
Sheep grazing in sugarcane fields in Colombia to control weeds
Utilizing Crop Residues and Cover Crops
Livestock can be used to graze crop residues after harvest or cover crops planted between cash crops or
tree rows. This:
1. Provides high quality forage for the animals
2. Helps incorporate manure back into the soil to improve fertility and organic matter
3. Can reduce the need for mechanical mowing or spraying of cover crops

Integrating Fish Ponds

In Asia, integrating fish ponds with livestock production is a centuries-old practice. Animal wastes are
directly fed into the ponds to fertilize the water and provide feed for the fish. Vegetables can also be
irrigated from the ponds and their residues fed back to the livestock.

Benefits of Integration
Incorporating livestock into crop and plantation systems provides numerous benefits:
1. Diversifies income
2. Improves soil health through nutrient cycling and organic matter addition
3. Provides efficient weed and residue management
4. Can increase yields of both crops and livestock
5. Reduces reliance on external inputs like fertilizers and pesticides
Intensive System
The intensive system of cattle farming, often referred to as factory farming, is an approach designed to
maximize production while minimizing costs. This method is characterized by high stocking densities and
the use of advanced technology to optimize growth and resource utilization.

Characteristics of Intensive Cattle Farming

High-Density Housing
Confinement
Cattle are typically housed in confined spaces, such as barns or feedlots, which allows for close
monitoring of their health and feeding. This system enables producers to raise a large number of animals
in a relatively small area, often referred to as Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) in the
U.S. and similar terms in other regions.
Feeding Practices
High-Energy Diets
Cattle are fed a diet rich in grains and supplements to promote rapid weight gain. This diet is designed to
maximize feed efficiency, allowing cattle to convert feed into weight gain more effectively. The average
daily weight gain in these systems can be significantly higher than in extensive systems.
Nutritional Management
The nutritional needs of cattle are carefully managed to ensure they receive adequate vitamins and
minerals, which are essential for growth and reproduction. This often includes the use of additives to
enhance growth rates and feed conversion efficiency.
Environmental and Health Concerns
Pollution and Waste
Intensive farming contributes significantly to environmental issues, including greenhouse gas emissions
and pollution from runoff. The concentration of waste can lead to water and soil contamination, raising
concerns about sustainability.

Cows and other ruminant animals (like goats and sheep) emit methane, a potent greenhouse gas, as they
digest grasses and plants. This process is called “enteric fermentation,” and it’s the origin of cows’
burps. Methane is also emitted from manure. Additionally, nitrous oxide, another powerful greenhouse
gas, is emitted from ruminant wastes on pastures and chemical fertilizers used on crops produced for
cattle feed.

More indirectly but also importantly, rising beef production requires increasing quantities of land. New
pastureland is often created by cutting down trees, which releases carbon dioxide stored in forests.

Animal Welfare Issues

High-density conditions often raise concerns regarding animal welfare, as animals may experience stress
and health problems due to confinement. The cramped conditions can facilitate the spread of diseases
among animals, leading to increased reliance on antibiotics, which contributes to the rise of antibiotic-
resistant bacteria
Origin of Cattle
Domestication
The domestication of cattle began approximately 10,000 years ago in the Near East, specifically in areas
known as the Fertile Crescent. This process involved the wild aurochs (Bos primigenius), which were
gradually domesticated by early agricultural societies. Genetic studies suggest that domesticated cattle,
particularly taurine cattle (Bos taurus), originated from this region, while zebu cattle (Bos indicus) have
their roots in the Indus Valley and were domesticated independently.
Genetic Contributions
Recent genetic analyses indicate that the maternal lineages of taurine cattle primarily originated from the
Near East, with significant contributions from Southern European aurochs. In contrast, zebu cattle were
introduced to Africa from Arabia and the Indian subcontinent at later stages. The domestication process
was not uniform; different regions saw varying degrees of genetic introgression between local wild
populations and domesticated breeds, leading to the diverse cattle breeds we see today.
Species of Cattle
Major Species
Taurine Cattle (Bos taurus)
Predominantly found in Europe, the Americas, and parts of Africa.
Known for their adaptability to various environments and their use in dairy and beef production.
Zebu Cattle (Bos indicus)
Primarily found in tropical regions, especially in South Asia and parts of Africa.
Characterized by a hump on their backs and a greater tolerance for heat and drought compared to taurine
cattle.

There are 277 identified breeds worldwide:

33- beef
18- draft
39- meat/draft
54- meat/dairy
21- dairy/draft
61- meat/dairy/draft
51-dairy

Common breeds of cattle

Hereford
Appearance
Hereford cattle are medium to large in size, typically exhibiting a dark red to red-yellow coat with a
distinctive white face. They may also have white markings on their bodies, particularly on the legs and
underbelly. There are both horned and polled (naturally hornless) varieties.
Physical Traits
They are muscular and robust, known for their good conformation and ability to thrive in various
climates. Mature cows typically weigh around 800 kg, while bulls can weigh up to 1200 kg.
Temperament
Herefords are generally known for their docile temperament, making them easier to handle compared to
some other breeds. They have strong maternal instincts, contributing to their reputation as good mothers.

Polled Hereford

Appearance
Polled Herefords typically exhibit the same color pattern as their horned counterparts, characterized by a
dark red to red-yellow coat with a distinctive white face. They may also have white markings on their
bodies, including the belly, legs, and underbelly.

Size

Mature Polled Hereford bulls can weigh between 1,000 to 1,800 pounds (450 to 800 kg), while mature
females typically weigh around 1,200 pounds (540 kg). They are known for their muscular build and
good conformation.
Temperament

Like their horned relatives, Polled Herefords are generally recognized for their docile temperament,
making them easier to handle and manage in farming operations.

Angus

Angus cattle are naturally polled (hornless) and are primarily solid black, with some red individuals. The
breed is known for its muscular build and compact body structure.

Size

Mature bulls typically weigh around 850 kg, while females average about 550 kg. They are recognized
for their good conformation and high carcass yield.

Temperament

Angus cattle are known for their docile temperament, making them easy to handle. This trait is beneficial
for both farmers and the animals, leading to lower stress levels during handling.
Marbling

Angus beef is renowned for its exceptional marbling, which contributes to tenderness and flavor. The
breed has been selectively bred for these traits, resulting in a consistent and high-quality product that is
highly sought after in the beef

Shorthorns

Shorthorns are distinguished by their short horns and come in three primary colors: red, white, and roan (a
mix of red and white hairs). They can be either horned or polled (hornless). The breed is known for its
blocky conformation, which contributes to its ability to produce high-quality beef. Beef Shorthorns are
larger than their dairy counterparts and are particularly valued for their marbling and tenderness, making
them ideal for high-quality beef production

Santa Gertrudis
Santa Gertrudis cattle are characterized by their solid deep cherry-red coat, which is smooth and short.
They can be either horned or polled (hornless). The breed exhibits physical traits typical of both Bos
indicus (zebu) and Bos taurus (European) cattle, including a small hump in bulls, large ears, and loose
skin with folds. Mature bulls typically weigh over 900 kg, while cows can weigh around 750 kg. They are
known for their rapid growth rates, often gaining more than 1.5 kg per day.

Belgian Blue Cattle

This breed is renowned for its "double muscling," resulting in a higher meat yield—up to 80% carcass
yield—compared to other breeds. This increased muscle mass leads to leaner meat with less fat, although
it may have slightly lower marbling. The meat is often compared favorably in flavor and tenderness to
that of Angus cattle

Brahman
Size: Mature bulls weigh between 1,600 to 2,200 pounds (approximately 725 to 1,000 kg), while cows
weigh around 1,000 to 1,400 pounds (450 to 635 kg).
Color
They can be gray, red, or a mix of both, with gray being the most common. Their skin often has black
pigmentation, particularly around the nose and ears.

Hump and Skin

The prominent hump is a muscle mass that contributes to their unique appearance, and their loose skin
increases surface area for cooling.

Heat Tolerance

They possess more sweat glands than European breeds, allowing them to regulate body temperature
effectively in high heat and humidity.
Insect Resistance: Their oily skin secretes a substance that helps repel insects, making them more resilient
against pests.

Nutritional Efficiency

Brahmans are known for their ability to thrive on lower-quality forage, which enhances their adaptability
to various feeding conditions

Breeding
It is defined as the controlled propagation of cattle to improve qualities desirable to man.
Goal of breeding:
1. To develop types that will meet market demand
2. Be productive under adverse climatic conditions
3. To be efficient in converting feeds to animal products

Cattle traits are either quantitative of qualitative

Qualitative:

 Coat color
 Presence of horn
 Blood characteristics

Quantitative
 Growth rate
 Liveweight
 Body measurements and maturity
 Milk yield
 Milk composition