EME Unit 2 Notes
EME Unit 2 Notes
UNIT-2
IC Engines: Fuels and properties, classification of IC engines, parts and terminology,
working of 4-stroke petrol engine, numerical on IP, BP, FP and Mechanical Efficiency.
Introduction to basics of electric and hybrid vehicles.
Gas Turbines: Open and closed cycle gas turbine. Hydraulic turbines: Classification and
working of Pelton wheel.
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: Principle of Refrigeration system, working of
domestic refrigerator (VCR) and window air conditioner.
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Fuels and properties:
Fuels are substances that can be burned or otherwise converted to release energy, typically in the form
of heat or power. The properties of fuels are critical in determining their efficiency, usability, and
environmental impact. Here's an overview of various types of fuels and their key properties:
1. Fossil Fuels
Properties:
o Energy Density: Fossil fuels generally have high energy densities, making them efficient for
producing large amounts of energy. For example, coal has an energy density of about 24 MJ/kg,
while crude oil is around 42-47 MJ/kg.
o Combustion Products: Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO₂), water vapor, sulfur
dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and other pollutants.
o Availability: Fossil fuels are widely available but are non-renewable, meaning they can be
depleted.
o State: Coal is solid, petroleum is liquid, and natural gas is gaseous.
2. Biofuels
Properties:
o Renewability: Biofuels are renewable, derived from biological materials like plants and organic
waste.
o Energy Content: Generally lower than fossil fuels. Ethanol has an energy density of about 26.8
MJ/kg, while biodiesel has around 37.8 MJ/kg.
o Carbon Neutrality: Biofuels are often considered carbon-neutral because the CO₂ released during
combustion is offset by the CO₂ absorbed during the growth of the biomass.
o Combustion Products: Similar to fossil fuels but with potentially lower sulfur and nitrogen
compounds, resulting in fewer pollutants.
3. Nuclear Fuels
Properties:
o Energy Density: Extremely high energy density. For example, 1 kg of Uranium-235 can produce
as much energy as about 3 million kg of coal.
o Radioactivity: Nuclear fuels are radioactive, requiring careful handling, storage, and disposal.
o Fission Products: Nuclear fission produces a wide range of radioactive isotopes, necessitating
long-term waste management.
o Sustainability: While the raw materials for nuclear fuel are finite, advanced reactors and breeder
technologies could extend their availability.
Properties:
o Energy Source: These sources do not involve traditional fuels. Instead, they rely on natural
processes (e.g., sunlight, wind, water flow) to generate energy.
o Sustainability: They are inexhaustible and produce little to no greenhouse gases during operation.
o Energy Density: Generally lower and more variable compared to fossil fuels. For example, solar
power has an average insolation of about 1 kW/m².
o Intermittency: Most renewable sources are intermittent, requiring storage or backup systems to
ensure a continuous power supply.
Calorific Value: The amount of energy released when a fuel is completely burned.
Flash Point: The lowest temperature at which a fuel can vaporize to form an ignitable mixture
with air.
Auto ignition Temperature: The temperature at which a fuel spontaneously ignites without an
external source of ignition.
Internal combustion engine
Internal combustion engines more popularly known as I.C. engine is a heat engine which
converts the heat energy released by the combustion of fuel into mechanical work. Here the
combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder.
The following are the most important ways of classification of I.C. engines:
Various important parts of an I.C. Engine are shown the figure below.
1. Cylinder: It is the cylindrical vessel in which the fuel is burnt and the power is developed.
It is considered as heart of the engine. The primary functions of cylinder are to contain the
working fluid under pressure and to guide the piston while reciprocating inside the cylinder.
2. Piston: Piston is a close fitting hollow cylindrical plunger reciprocating in the cylinder.
The power developed by the combustion of the fuel is transmitted by the piston to the
crankshaft through connecting rod.
3. Piston rings: These are metallic rings inserted into the circumferential grooves provided
at the top end of the piston. These rings maintain a gas tight joint between the piston and
the cylinder while the piston is reciprocating in the cylinder. They also help in conductingthe heat
from the piston to the cylinder.
4. Connecting rod: It is a link that connects the piston and the crankshaft. Its function is to
convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft.
5. Crank & crankshaft: The crank is a lever with one of its end connected to the connecting
rod by a pin joint with other end connected rigidly to the crankshaft. The power required
for any useful purpose is taken from the crankshaft.
6. Crank case: It encloses the crankshaft and serves as a sump for the lubricating oil.
7. Valves: The valves control the flow of air/fuel into the cylinder and exhaust gases from the
engine cylinder. The valves are operated mechanically by cams. These valves are actuated
by means of cams.
8. Flywheel: It is a heavy mass of rotating wheel mounted on the crankshaft and is used as an
energy storing device. The flywheel stores energy received during the power stroke and
supplies the same during other strokes.
1. Top dead center (TDC): The extreme position of the piston near to the cylinder
headis called 'top dead center' or 'TDC'.
2. Bottom dead center (BDC): The extreme position of the piston nearer to the crankshaft
is called 'bottom dead center' or 'BDC'.
4. Stroke: It is the linear distance travelled by the piston from the TDC to BDC or BDC
to TDC.
Elements of Mechanical Engineering
A 4-stroke petrol engine performs four different strokes to complete one cycle.
Suction stroke
1. At the beginning of the stroke, piston is in TDC and during the stroke, the piston moves
from TDC to BDC.
2. The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve will be closed. As the piston moves
downwards, suction is created in the cylinder as a result, fresh air-petrol mixture
(charge) is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve.
3. As the piston reaches BDC, the suction stroke completes and inlet valve closes. The
suction stroke is represented by the line AB on P-V diagram.
Compression stroke
1. In this stroke the piston moves from BDC to TDC.
2. Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed. As the piston moves upwards, the air-petrol
mixture in the cylinder is compressed.
3. The pressure and temperature of the mixture increases and this is shown by the curve
BC on the P-V diagram.
4. When the piston reaches the TDC, the spark plug ignites the charge. The combustion
of the fuel takes place at the constant volume and is shown by a line CD on the P-V
diagram.
Exhaust stroke
1. In this stroke the inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve is opened.
2. The piston moves from BDC to TDC and forces the remaining burnt gases out of the
cylinder to the atmosphere through the exhaust valve. This is shown by the line BA on
P-V diagram.
3. When the piston reaches the TDC, the exhaust valve closes and this completes the cycle.
Each stroke is completed when the crankshaft rotates by 180°. Hence in 4-stroke engines, four
different strokes are completed through 720° of the crankshaft rotation or 2 revolutions of the
crankshaft based on the type of fuel used.
The working principle of a 4-Stroke Petrol engine is based on theoretical Otto cycle. Hence it
is also known as Otto cycle engine.
And also spark plug is used to ignite the air fuel mixture inside the engine cylinder, hence it is
also known as spark ignition engine or S.I. engine.
Introduction to Basics of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
Electric and hybrid vehicles represent a significant shift in automotive technology,
aiming to reduce dependency on fossil fuels and decrease environmental impact. Here's an
introduction to the basics:
Definition: Electric vehicles (EVs) are powered entirely by electricity. They use an electric
motor instead of an internal combustion engine (ICE) to drive the vehicle.
Key Components:
Battery Pack: The heart of an EV, typically a lithium-ion battery, stores the electrical energy
that powers the motor. Battery capacity is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
Electric Motor: Converts electrical energy from the battery into mechanical energy to move
the vehicle. Motors can be either AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current).
Converter: Converts the DC electricity stored in the battery into AC electricity that powers
the motor.
Controller: Manages the flow of electricity from the battery to the motor, determining the
vehicle's speed and acceleration.
Regenerative Braking: A system that recovers energy during braking and stores it back into
the battery.
Types of EVs:
Advantages:
Zero Emissions: EVs produce no tailpipe emissions, reducing air pollution.
Lower Operating Costs: Electricity is cheaper than gasoline, and EVs have fewer
moving parts, leading to lower maintenance costs.
Quiet Operation: EVs are much quieter than ICE vehicles.
Challenges:
Range Anxiety: Concern about the limited driving range of EVs, although this is
improving with newer models.
Charging Infrastructure: The availability and speed of charging stations can vary,
affecting convenience.
Battery Cost and Lifespan: Batteries are expensive and degrade over time, though
advances in technology are improving their durability.
Definition: Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) combine an internal combustion engine with an
electric motor and battery. Unlike PHEVs, HEVs cannot be plugged in to recharge; they rely
on regenerative braking and the ICE to recharge the battery.
Key Components:
Internal Combustion Engine (ICE): The conventional gasoline or diesel engine that works
alongside the electric motor.
Electric Motor/Generator: Can act as both a motor to drive the vehicle and a generator to
recharge the battery.
Battery Pack: Smaller than in a full EV, used to power the electric motor.
Power Split Device: A mechanism that allows the vehicle to seamlessly switch between or
combine the power from the ICE and the electric motor.
Regenerative Braking: Captures energy usually lost during braking to recharge the battery.
Types of Hybrids
Mild Hybrid: The electric motor assists the ICE but cannot power the vehicle on its own. It
helps improve fuel efficiency by reducing the load on the engine.
Full Hybrid: The vehicle can run on the electric motor alone, the ICE alone, or a combination
of both. Examples include the Toyota Prius and Ford Fusion Hybrid.
Advantages:
Improved Fuel Efficiency: HEVs use less fuel than conventional vehicles, especially in
city driving.
Lower Emissions: Reduced tailpipe emissions compared to traditional ICE vehicles.
No Range Anxiety: The ICE provides the range and convenience of a traditional
vehicle.
Challenges:
Complexity: The dual powertrain (ICE and electric motor) adds complexity to the
vehicle, potentially leading to higher maintenance costs.
Higher Initial Cost: Hybrids are generally more expensive than their non-hybrid
counterparts.
Environmental Impact
EVs: Significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, especially when charged using
renewable energy. However, battery production and disposal have environmental
considerations.
HEVs: Reduce emissions compared to conventional vehicles, but still rely on fossil fuels.
Market Trends
Growing Adoption: Governments and automakers are pushing for greater adoption of EVs and
hybrids through incentives, stricter emission standards, and advancements in technology.
Electric and hybrid vehicles are key to the future of sustainable transportation, offering a path
to reducing dependency on fossil fuels and lowering emissions.
Elements of Mechanical Engineering
Gas turbines
A gas turbine is similar to a steam turbine, but instead of applying the heat obtained by the
combustion of fuels to produce steam which runs the steam turbines the heat is used directly to
produce mechanical power.
Based on the flow of working substance during the cycle of operation, the gas turbines are
classified as open cycle and closed cycle gas turbines.
4. The high pressure, high temperature hot gases are then made to flow through the turbine
blades where the heat energy is converted into mechanical work (in the form of rotation
of shaft).
5. The shaft of the turbine can be connected to a generator for producing electricity or to
any other device for doing useful work.
6. The gases coming out from the turbine are discharged to the atmosphere as they cannot
be used any more. The working substance (air and fuel) must be replaced continuously
for every cycle of operation.
7. Since, the working substance is discharged to the atmosphere; it is called an open cycle
gas turbine.
8. Both the turbine and the compressor are mounted on a common shaft. The compressor
operates by utilizing some of the power developed in the turbine.
Closed cycle gas turbine
Hydraulic turbines
Hydraulic turbines or water turbine are machines which convert the potential and kinetic energy
possessed by water into mechanical energy in the form of rotation of shaft.
Based on the type of hydraulic action which converts the hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy, hydraulic turbines are classified as impulse water turbine and reaction water turbine.
1. Impulse turbine requires high head and low discharge at the inlet of the turbine.
2. In an impulse water turbine the whole of the pressure energy of the water is converted
into the kinetic energy in one or more number of nozzles before it is passed on to the
turbine wheel.
3. The water comes out of nozzle in the form of a jet of very high velocities. This high
velocity jet is made to strike a series of curved blades fixed to the rotor. This striking
action rotates the turbine.
4. Examples include Pelton wheel, Banki turbine etc.
Pelton wheel
1. Pelton wheel is most commonly used type of impulse turbine and requires high head
and low discharge.
2. In operation, water from a high head source flows through the penstock and enters the
nozzle.
3. As the water flows through the nozzle, the potential energy of water gets completely
converted to kinetic energy.
4. The jet of water coming out of nozzle at high velocity strikes the curved blades known
as Pelton cups.
5. The Pelton cups are fixed on the runner wheel. Hence the striking action of water on
Pelton cups sets up the runner wheel to rotate in the direction of striking jet.
6. The runner wheel in turn is coupled to the shaft which also rotates along with runner
wheel.
7. The rotation of shaft is used to drive a generator to produce electricity.
8. After performing the work, the water freely discharges to the tailrace.
Pelton turbines are not used at lower heads because their rotational speed becomes very low
and the runner required is very large and heavy.
Refrigeration
Refrigeration is defined as a method of reducing the temperature of a system below that of the
surroundings and maintaining it at the lower temperature by continuously abstracting heat from
it.
In a refrigerator, the working fluid that continuously extracts heat from within the refrigerator
which is required to be cooled is called a refrigerant
1. Ammonia – It is used in ice plants and cold storage. Its melting point is and has low
specific volume. It produces high refrigeration efects even in small refrigerators. It
doesn’t harm the ozone. But it is toxic, flammable, irritating and destroys the food due
to which it cannot be used for domestic refrigeration.
2. Carbon dioxide – It is used in marine refrigerators. The effeciency of CO2 is less,
hence it is rarely used in domestic refrigerator. It is colourless, odourless, non toxic,
non flammable and non corrosive.
3. Sulphur dioxide – Eariler sulphur dioxide was one of the most commonly used
refrigerants in the refrigerators. But it was not used because its refrigeration effect was
low and it had high specific volume due to which large capacity and high speed
compressors were required. And also since it combines with water to form sulfuric acid
which is corrosive.
4. Methyl chloride – Used in domestic and industrial refrigerators. Since it will burn
under some conditions and is slightly toxic, it is not generally used.
5. Freon – Freon group of refrigerants is used almost universally in domestic refrigerators.
These refrigerants are colourless, almost odourless, non toxic, non flammable, non
explosive and non corrosive. Freon-12 and freon-22 are the two commonly used
refrigerants in domestic refrigerator, water coolers, air conditioning plants, cold
storage, food processing and storage etc. But it has been found that these refrigerants
are major threat to ozone layer
Parts of a refrigerator
To accomplish the task of producing the cooling effect, a refrigeraot must consist a eveporator,
a condenser, a circulating device like pump or compressor and a expansion valve.
Evaporator: This is the main part of the refrigeration system where the liquid refrigerant is
evaporated by absorbing the heat from refrigeration space which has to be cooled. It consists
of metal tubes which surrounds the freezing and cooling compartments.
Circulating system: It consists of mechanical devices like pumps or compressors that are
necessary to circulate the refrigerant to undergo the refrigeration cycle. They are generally
driven by electric motors. The electrical energy input to the motor is the energy input to the
refrigerator.
Condenser: It is a device where heat from the refrigerant is rejected at higher temperature to
another medium, usually the atmospheric air. Here the refrigerant vapours gets converted into
liquid by rejecting the heat that was absorbed in the refrigeration space and in the compressr
Expansion device: This device reduces the pressure and temperature of the liquid refrigerant
before it passes to the evaporator.
6. The high-pressure liquid refrigerant leaves the condenser and passes through the throttle
valve where it is expanded to low pressure and temperature. The temperature of the
refrigerant falls to a value less than that of the refrigerated space.
7. The low pressure-low temperature refrigerant again enters the evaporator where it
absorbs the heat from the refrigeration space and evaporates. And the cycle repeats.
Air conditioning
6. The hot air passing through the air filter comes in contact with cold evaporator coils and
exchanges its heat. The cool fresh air enters the conditioned space.
7. The refrigerant vapours enter the compressor and gets compressed to a higher pressure and
temperature.
8. The high pressure refrigerant leaving the compressor enters the condenser coils. The latent heat
of the refrigerant vapour is given to the surrounding atmosphere.
9. Condensation takes place due to this heat transfer as the condenser fan draws air from outside
the building and circulates it over the condenser coils.
10. The high pressure liquid refrigerant enters the throttle valve and expands in it. The pressure of
the refrigerant reduces. This refrigerant moves to the evaporator coils and the cycle repeats.
11. Desired temperature inside the room can be adjusted by thermostatic control device.