Chapter 1

Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion

Systems

1.1 Introduction

Aircraft engine is also denoted as aero engine, airbreathing engines, or aircraft

power plant. It acts as the heart of aircraft (being the only source of power in
aircrafts) similar to human’s heart. The desire to fly is as old as the known history of
man. Winged gods were plenty among all kinds of societies the man started to form
in the early ages. These winged figures or figurines are shown on many temples of
Egyptian civilization some 5000 B.C., Sumerian Civilization 3500–2500 B.C and
Hittite civilization 3000–1000 B.C. Many of these idols of early civilization carried
certain common features, namely the powerful body of a lion (representing leader-
ship on land), head of a noble man (putting these idols on a more humane
perspective), and wings of an eagle for mastering air.
There are also some interesting artifacts found among ancient ruins. A 6 inch
wooden model of an aircraft featuring fuselage, wing, and tail (exactly similar to
twentieth century civil transports) was found in one of the tombs in Saqqara, Egypt,
that dates back to 200 BC (Fig. 1.1).
An ornament for a golden delta wing aircraft model dates back to 500–800 A.D.
that is typical to F 102 jet fighter of the 1950s was found in Columbia (Fig. 1.2).
Also a golden model found in Central and South America that is identical to
Grumman Aircraft X-29 (Fig. 1.3).
The axiom saying that “man cannot dream or imagine something that is not a
part of his real life experience” makes us puzzled how such early civilizations that
knew nothing about flight principals could produce such models that carry present
features of aircrafts and same fuselage, wing, and tail construction?!
Flight story is long dated to several 100 years B.C. It started by mankind’s
dream of flight by imitating birds. History recorded some distinct cases. The first
was due to Daedalus (a famous architect) and his son Icarus who were prisoned in
eighteenth century B.C in Crete. Daedalus built wings for himself and Icarus,
fashioned with feathers held together with wax. Myth states that Icarus flying too

© Springer-Verlag London 2016 1

A.F. El-Sayed, Fundamentals of Aircraft and Rocket Propulsion,
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-6796-9_1
2 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.1 Egyptian wooden model (200 BC)

Fig. 1.2 Columbian golden delta wing model (500–800 AD)

Fig. 1.3 Golden model from South America similar to Grumman aircraft X-29

close to the sun god Helios, the wax melted from the heat and he fell to his death.
Another described case also is due to Abbas Ibn Fernas, an Arabic Mathematician
and scientist who lived in Cordoba (810–887 AC) and could fly after jumping
from a tower. However, ignoring the contribution of the tails of birds in flight
control, he fell down and was hurt (but did not die) as he tried to return to ground.
Several Turkish unsuccessful trials were recorded in the last centuries. The author
of this book, in his previous book [1], chronicled flight story in terms of milestones
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 3

for both aircraft and engine inventions beginning with Leonardo da Vinci up
through the twenty-first century. This book integrated with the previous one [1]
provides a thorough understanding of engine propulsion concepts, including the
performance of aero engines. Author of the present book introduces propulsion
systems in a rather new flavor to both aviation and aerospace industries. Integrated
with aircrafts, appropriate propulsion systems will be identified. An innovatory
classification for both military and civil aircrafts will be given. Next, classifica-
tions for aero engines will be followed. Appropriate power plants for each
category of airplanes will be also highlighted.

1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts

1.2.1 General

An aircraft may be defined as a vehicle which is able to fly by being supported by

the air, or in general, the atmosphere of a planet [2]. An aircraft counters the force of
gravity by using either static lift or dynamic lift [3]. Although rockets and missiles
also travel through the atmosphere, most are not considered aircraft because they
use rocket thrust instead of aerodynamics as the primary means of lift. However, a
cruise missile has to be considered as an aircraft because it relies on a lifting wing or
fuselage/body. Based on method of lift, aircrafts may be classified as either lighter
than air (AEROSTATS) or heavier than air (AERODYNES) (Fig. 1.4).

1.2.2 Aerostats

Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on
the water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled
with a relatively low density gas such as helium, hydrogen or hot air, which is less
dense than the surrounding air. Aerostats may be further subdivided into powered
and unpowered types. Unpowered types are kite which was invented in China
500 B.C., sky lanterns (small hot air balloons; second type of aircraft to fly as
invented 300 B.C.), balloons, and blimps.
A powered aerostat mostly denoted as airship or dirigible can be steered and
propelled through the air using rudders and propellers or other thrust. The main
types of airship are non-rigid, semi-rigid, and rigid. Non-rigid (sometimes denoted
blimps) are small airships without internal skeletons. Semi-rigid airships are
slightly larger and have some form of internal support such as a fixed keel. An
example for rigid airship with full skeletons is Zeppelin. Although airships are no
longer used for passenger transport, they are still used for other purposes such as
advertising, sightseeing, surveillance, and research [4]. As demonstrated in Fig. 1.4,
4 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Aircrafts (Flight Vehicles)

Lighter than Air Heavier than Air

(Aerostats) (Aerodynes)

Powered or
Unpowered Fixed Rotorcraft Hybrid
Dirigible
Wing Fixed/Rotary

Kites Non-rigid

Sky Semi-rigid
Unpowered Powered
Lanterns
Rigid
Balloons
Other

Blimps Methods

Flapping- Lifting FanWing

Wing Body

Fig. 1.4 Classifications of aircrafts

a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered. Figure 1.5 illustrates both

unpowered (balloon) and powered (Zeppelin) aerostats.

1.2.3 Aerodynes

Aerodynes, or heavier than air vehicles, resemble almost all types of aircrafts. It
pushes air or gas in one direction, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton’s laws of
motion) that pushes the aircraft in the other direction. There are four groups of
aerodynes, namely, fixed wing aircrafts, rotorcrafts, hybrid fixed/rotary wing, and a
fourth group relying upon other methods for generating lift. For fixed wing aircraft
(generally denoted as airplane or aeroplane), aerodynamic lift is generated by
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 5

Fig. 1.5 Two types of aerostats (a) Balloon (b) Zeppelin

forward movement of wings, while for rotorcraft lift is generated by spinning wing-
shaped rotors (sometimes called rotary wings). Fixed wing and rotorcraft types may
be further divided into powered and unpowered (gliders) types, as will be described
in details below. Rotorcrafts may also be divided into same categories of powered
and unpowered types, e.g. helicopters and autogyro, respectively. The third group,
namely, hybrid fixed/rotary wing aircrafts, is sometimes identified as compound
rotorcraft and may include additional thrust engines or propellers and static lifting
surfaces. This group has several types, namely, tilt-wing, tiltrotor, mono tiltrotor,
mono-tilt-rotor rotary-ring, and coleopter.
The fourth group may be subdivided into three groups, namely: lifting body,
flapping-Wing (Ornithopter), and FanWing. Lifting body configuration has an
aircraft body shape to produce lift, e.g. Martin-Marietta X-24. Powered lift types
rely on engine-derived lift for vertical operation either in takeoff, landing, or both.
An ornithopter (from Greek ornithos “bird” and pteron “wing”) is an aircraft that
flies by flapping its wings. The FanWing is a recent innovation (starting 2005 in
United Kingdom) and represents a completely new class of aircraft. It uses a fixed
wing with a cylindrical fan mounted spanwise just above the wing. As the fan spins,
it creates airflow backwards over the upper surface of the wing creating lift.
In the succeeding sections heavier than air vehicles or aerodynes will be
discussed in details.

1.2.4 Fixed Wing Aircrafts

1.2.4.1 General Classifications

Fixed wing aircrafts are further classified as either powered or unpowered vehicles
(Fig. 1.6). Unpowered types may be next subdivided into six types, namely
6 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fixed Wings Aircrafts

Flying Wing

Hybrid
Unpowered Powered
Wing
Mono-
Glider Fixed
Blended
Biplane
Paraglider Wing
Variable
Tri-plane
Hang Conventional
Tailless
Land
Sailplane

Sea
Kite Military Civil

Space Land TOL Amphibian

Shuttle
Sea Carrier TOL

Enhanced TOL Conventional TOL

STOL VTOL VSTOL STOVL

Fig. 1.6 Classifications of fixed wing aircrafts

gliders, hang gliders, paragliders, sailplanes, kites, and space shuttle in its return
mission. Powered aircrafts are next classified based on several aspects. Based on
the number of wings, it is mono-plane, biplane, or tri-plane. Based on geometry, it
is fixed, variable (swept-back wings), or tailless as illustrated in Fig. 1.7. Swept
back wings are adopted in some military aircrafts. Wings are swept back when
aircraft flies in supersonic speeds. By tailless aircraft, it is meant an aircraft
without horizontal tail.
Finally based on wing type, fixed wing aircrafts may be classified as conven-
tional, flying wing, blended wing body (BWB), and hybrid wing body (HWB).
Figure 1.8 illustrates blended wing body (BWB), while Fig. 1.9 illustrates a flying
wing.
Based on takeoff and landing (TOL), they may be classified as either conven-
tional or enhanced. Enhanced TOL types may be further divided into four cate-
gories, namely: Vertical Take Off and Landing (VTOL), Short Take Off and
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 7

Fig. 1.7 Classification based on geometry

Fig. 1.8 Blended wing body (BWB)

8 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.9 Flying wing (B-2

Spirit)

Landing (STOL), Vertical and/or Short Take-Off and Landing (VSTOL), and
Short Take Off and Vertical Landing (STOVL). A tailsitter is a type of VTOL
aircraft that launches and lands on its tail, something akin to a Buck Rogers type
rocket, such as the McDonnell Douglas DC-X Delta Clipper. One of the most
famous examples of this type of aircraft is the Ryan X-13 Vertijet. Among the
propeller-driven versions were the Lockheed XFV and the Convair XFY Pogo. It
is important here to state some aircraft types may belong to more than one
category of this group of enhanced TOL. As an example Harrier aircraft belongs
to both VTOL and V/STOL types. This is not a unique case, but it is severally
repeated in other classifications hereafter. Figure 1.10 illustrates four types of
enhanced TOL aircrafts.
Furthermore, based also on takeoff and landing, fixed wing aircrafts may
operate from land or sea carriers. A third classification based on takeoff and
landing defines land, sea, and amphibious planes. A seaplane is a fixed-wing
aircraft capable of taking off and landing (alighting) on water, while seaplanes
which can also take-off and land on airfields are a small subclass called Amphib
ian aircraft (Fig. 1.11). Seaplanes and amphibians are usually divided into two
categories based on their technological characteristics: floatplanes and flying
boats, which are generally far larger and can carry far more. These aircrafts
were sometimes called hydroplanes.
Finally, fixed wings are seen in both civilian and military aircrafts.
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 9

Fig. 1.10 Enhanced TOL aircrafts

Fig. 1.11 Sea and amphibian aircrafts

1.2.4.2 Civil Aircrafts

As outlined above, fixed wings aircrafts may be either classified as civil or military
types. Here civil aircrafts will be further discussed. It is decomposed into different
groups, namely, commercial transport, agriculture, trainer, firefighting, experimen-
tal, research, search and rescue as well as sea/amphibious planes (Fig. 1.12).
10 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Civil Aircrafts

Commercial Agricultural Trainer Firefighting

Research Search Seaplanes

Experimental
and and

Rescue Amphibious

Fig. 1.12 Classification of civil aircrafts

Fig. 1.13 Agricultural aircraft

1.2.4.2.1 Agricultural Aircrafts

Agricultural aircrafts (Fig. 1.13) are aircrafts that have been built or converted for
agricultural use – usually aerial application of pesticides (crop dusting) or fertilizer
(aerial topdressing); in these roles, they are referred to as “crop dusters” or “top
dressers” [5].
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 11

Fig. 1.14 Side-by-side and tandem trainer aircrafts

1.2.4.2.2 Trainer

A trainer is an aircraft used to develop piloting or navigational skills in flight crew.

Civilian pilots are normally trained in a light aircraft, with two or more seats to
allow for student and instructor. The two seating configurations for trainer aircraft
are pilot and instructor side by side or in tandem, usually with the pilot in front and
the instructor behind [6]. Training has two phases, namely, basic and advanced.
Fig. 1.14 illustrates two configurations of trainer aircrafts.

1.2.4.2.3 Firefighting Aircraft

Firefighting aircraft is used in aerial firefighting and normally employed for

steep, rocky, high, and unsafe areas. Airtankers or water bombers are fixed-
12 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.15 Firefighting CL-215 aircraft dropping water

wing aircraft fitted with tanks that can be filled on the ground at an air tanker
base (like C-130 and Grumman S-2 T) or, in the case of flying boats (CL 215
and Martin Mars Bomber) and amphibious aircraft, by skimming water from
lakes, reservoirs, or large rivers. Figure 1.15 illustrates CL 215 aircraft
dropping water. Air-tankers may also use non-toxic retardants like ammonium
sulfate, which will then act as fertilizers to help the re-growth of plants after
the fire.

1.2.4.2.4 Experimental Aircraft

An experimental aircraft is an aircraft that has not yet been fully proven in flight
[7]. Often, this implies that new aerospace technologies are being tested on the
aircraft. Experimental aircraft is also a specific term referring to an aircraft flown
with an experimental category Airworthiness Certificate. A notable example of an
experimental aircraft is the Rutan Voyager (Fig. 1.16). It is the first aircraft to fly
around the world without stopping or refueling. Model 76 Voyager powered by a
piston engine.
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 13

Fig. 1.16 Rutan Voyager

1.2.4.2.5 Research

Research aircrafts can be identified as two main types, already manufactured

aircraft or new designed ones. The first may be employed either as an airborne
laboratory (DC-8) or in new projects for testing some operating conditions (tran-
sonic, sonic boom, and supersonic researches), flight procedure, and so on. The
second is a newly designed aircrafts that incorporate developments in aerodynamic
characteristics, material, equipments, systems (stall speed warning), and engine.
Centurion, Helios, and pathfinder are three types for solar-powered aircrafts.

1.2.4.2.6 Search and Rescue Aircrafts (SAR)

Search and rescue aircrafts (SAR) is the search for and provision of aid to people
who are in distress or imminent danger like survivors of aircraft downed at sea as
well as sailors and passengers of sea vessels in distress. An example for such
aircrafts is de Havilland Canada
DHC-5 Buffalo. Air ambulance may be included to this category. It is used for
emergency medical assistance in situations where either a traditional ambulance
cannot reach the scene easily or quickly enough, or the patient needs to be
transported over a distance or terrain that makes air transportation the most prac-
tical transport. King Air, King Air 200, and Pilatus PC 12/45 are examples for air
ambulance aircrafts.

1.2.4.2.7 Seaplanes

Seaplanes are aircrafts capable for operating from sea only while amphibious ones
can operate from both sea and land as described above. Examples of early
Grumman’s amphibian family are single-engine biplane G-22, twin-engine G-21,
G-44, and G-73.
14 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

1.2.4.2.8 Commercial Transport

Commercial transport is an airplane used by airliner to deliver passengers or cargo

(freight) for a fare or fee. Passenger aircrafts are now one of the mostly used
methods of human transportation and includes numerous types as well be discussed
later.

Cargo Aircrafts
A cargo aircraft (also known as freight aircraft or freighter) is designed or
converted for the carriage of goods or mail rather than passengers [8]. Cargo
airlines are a special category of air service that has grown rapidly in the last
three decades to offer express delivery of priority freight. They are usually devoid
of passenger amenities, and generally feature one or more large doors for the
loading and unloading of cargo. Aircraft designed for cargo flight use have a
number of features, refer to Fig. 1.17, that distinguish them from conventional
passenger aircraft: a “fat” looking fuselage as displayed in Airbus A300 Beluga
Supertransporter, a high-wing to allow the cargo area to sit near the ground like

Fig. 1.17 Cargo Aircrafts (Freighters) Top: An-225 and Bottom A300-600ST, Reproduced by
permission from AIRBUS
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 15

Antonov An 225, a large number of wheels to allow it to land at unprepared

locations, and a high-mounted tail to allow cargo to be driven directly into and
off the aircraft and most important additional strengthening on key structural areas.
Moreover, there is a wide range of aircraft suitable for all kinds of cargo flights,
short-, medium-, and long-haul. Based on its capacity, it ranges from smaller
aircraft performing short notice flights carrying vital spare parts up to large cargo
aircraft able to transport any voluminous goods

Transports Aircrafts
Transport aircrafts are also called airliners or airplanes. The first scheduled airline
commenced operation in 1914 between Tampa and St. Petersburg in Florida, USA.
Passengers travelled the 35 km distance in a flying boat.
Transport aircrafts may be classified – based on flight speed – to supersonic
transport (SST) and subsonic/transonic types (Fig. 1.18). Airplanes that are
powered by jet engines are also called jetliners. Thus Airliners combine both piston
engines aircrafts as well as jet engines ones. A supersonic transport (SST) is
designed to transport passengers at speeds greater than the speed of sound. The
only SSTs to see regular service were Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144
(Fig. 1.19). Both are powered by afterburning turbojet engines. The first passenger
flight of the Tu-144 was in June 1978, and the last flight Concorde’s was on
November 26, 2003.
Extensive research work by NASA staff is performed to introduce hypersonic
transports (will fly in Mach number equal or greater than 5) in the coming decade.
Subsonic/transonic aircrafts are described in details in [9]. Their different classes

Transport Aircrafts

Subsonic/Transonic Transport Supersonic Transport (SST)

Private Executive
Jet Commuter Regional
(Corporate)

Short Medium Long

Single Twin Haul Haul Haul
Engine Engines

Fig. 1.18 Classification of transport aircrafts

16 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.19 Tu-144

are private (small), executive jet (corporate), commuter, regional, short haul,
medium haul, and long haul.

Small Transport
Small transports (sometimes identified as private or air taxi) are either single-
engine or twin-engine aircrafts. Examples for them are Cessna 172 and Beechcraft
58 TC Baron respectively, and both are powered by piston engines. Number of
passengers for both types is three and six, respectively. Executive or corporate jet is
private or charter aircraft. It is either powered by turboprop or jet engines. Exam-
ples are Raytheon-Beechcraft King Air B300, Cessna Citation II, and Gulfstream.
Figure 1.20 illustrates Gulfstream G650 T2 which first flight was on February
25, 2010.

Commuter
A Commuter aircraft carry 19 or fewer passenger seats also sometimes called
feederliners, depending on their size, engines, and seating configurations.
Depending on local and national regulations, a commuter aircraft may not qualify
as an airliner and may not be subject to the regulations applied to larger aircraft.
Members of this class of aircraft normally lack such amenities as lavatories and
galleys and typically do not carry a flight attendant as an aircrew member. The
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 17

Fig. 1.20 Gulfstream G650 T2 executive aircraft

Fig. 1.21 Beechcraft 1900 commuter aircraft

Beechcraft 1900, for example, has only 19 seats and powered by twin turboprop
engines (Fig. 1.21). Other aircraft in this category are the Fairchild Metro, Jetstream
31/41, IPTN CN-235, and Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante, which are all powered
by twin turboprop engines.
18 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Regional Airliner
A regional airliner is a small airliner designed to fly up to 100 passengers, and
usually feeding larger carriers’ hubs from small markets. This class of airliners is
typically flown by the regional airlines that are either contracted by or subsidiaries
of the larger airlines. It may be powered by turbofans or turboprops. These airliners,
though smaller than aircraft operated by major airlines, are equipped with lavatories
and have a flight attendant to look after the in-flight needs of the passengers.
Typical aircraft in this category are the Embraer ERJ 145 powered by two turbofan
engines (Fig. 1.22). Other aircrafts of this category are Bombardier CRJ series and
“Q” (DASH-8) series powered by turbofan engine, ATR 42/72 and Saab 340/2000.
The last two aircrafts are powered by turboprop engines. Airlines and their partners
sometimes use these for short flights between small hubs or for bringing passengers
to hub cities where they may board larger aircraft.
In aviation, the flight length is defined as the time airborne during a flight. Short
haul flight is defined as a flight less than 3 h in length, while a medium haul is
defined as a flight between 3 and 6 h. A long haul flight is a journey typically made
by wide-body aircraft that involve long distances, typically beyond six and a half
hours in length, and often are non-stop flights.

Short Haul
Typical short haul airliners in the 1960s and 1970s are Aerospatiale Caravelle,
Aérospatiale Corvette, Hawker Siddeley Trident 1C/1E, BAC One-Eleven,

Fig. 1.22 Embraer ERJ145 regional aircraft

1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 19

Fig. 1.23 Aeroflot Yakovlev Yak-40 series Short Haul Aircraft

Douglas DC-9, Tupolev Tu-124, Tupolev Tu-134, Fokker F28, Yakovlev Yak-40
(Fig. 1.23), Boeing 737-100, Boeing 737-200, Dassault Mercure, and VFW-614.
Concerning 1980s and 1990s short hauls, they are Airbus A320, Boeing 737-300,
Boeing 737-400, Boeing 737-500, BAe 146, Fokker 70, Fokker 100, and Yakovlev
Yak-42 (Fig. 1.22). Finally for 2005 and onward, they are Embraer E-190, Embraer
E-195, and Bombardier Aerospace C-Series. All aircrafts are powered by turbofan
engines.

Medium Haul
Medium haul aircrafts are more common class of airliners (normally narrow-body
or single aisle aircraft). These airliners are generally used with fewer passengers
than their wide-body counterparts. Examples include the Boeing 727, 757, MD-80/
MD-90 series, Airbus A320 family, Tupolev Tu-204, Tu-214, Embraer E-Jets 190&
195, and Tu-334. Older airliners like the Boeing 707, 727, McDonnell Douglas
DC-8, Fokker F70/F100, VC10, Tupolev, and Yakovlev jets also fit into this
category. All these airplanes are powered by turbofan engines. Figure 1.24 illus-
trates Airbus A320 aircraft floating in Hudson River in 15 January 2009. Due to a
collision with a flock of birds, both engines were disabled several minutes after
takeoff. Pilot made a successful landing in Hudson River, saving the lives of all
150 passengers and five crew.
20 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.24 Medium Haul Airbus A320 aircraft (Reproduced by permission from AIRBUS)

Long Haul
Long haul aircrafts are the largest airliners, which are wide-body jets and many
passengers. These aircraft are frequently twin-aisle aircraft. Aircraft in this category
are the Boeing 747, Boeing 767, Boeing 777, Boeing 787, Airbus A300/A310,
Airbus A330, Airbus A340, Airbus A380, Airbus A350, Lockheed L-1011 TriStar,
McDonnell Douglas DC-10, McDonnell Douglas MD-11 (Fig. 1.25), Tupolev
Tu-214, Ilyushin Il-86, and Ilyushin Il-96. All aircrafts are powered by turbofan
engines.
It is worth mentioning here that several aircrafts are manufactured in two
versions, one as a transport and the second as a cargo. Moreover, many transports
may be easily converted into cargo aircrafts. However, a few types are designed as a
cargo type from cold start.

1.2.4.3 Military Aircrafts

Military aircrafts are either fixed wing or helicopters (Fig. 1.26). Both can be further
subdivided into combat and non-combat aircrafts.
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 21

Fig. 1.25 Long Haul Airbus 380 (Reproduced by permission from AIRBUS)

Military Aircrafts

Fixed Wing Helicopters

Combat Non-Combat Combat Non-Combat

Fig. 1.26 Classification of military aircrafts

1.2.4.3.1 Combat Fixed Wing Military Aircrafts

Fixed wing combat aircrafts may be classified into seven categories, namely,
fighter, bomber, fighter-bomber, maritime patrol, ground attack, and powered lift
as illustrated in Fig. 1.27.

Bomber
A bomber is designed to attack ground and sea targets, primarily by dropping
bombs on them [10]. It is worthy mentioning that the first non-stop transatlantic
22 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fixed Wing Combat Aircrafts

Bomber Fighter Fighter/ Ground Maritime Enhanced

Bomber Attack Patrol TOL

Tactics Strategic VTOL STOL VSTOL STOVL

Fig. 1.27 Classification of fixed wing combat aircrafts

Fig. 1.28 Stealth strategic bomber B-2 and strategic bomber Tu-95 bear

flight in 1919 was made by two British aviators on their heavy twin engine Vickers
Vimy Bomber in 16 h trip.
Bomber aircrafts are further divided into tactics and strategic types.
Strategic bombers are primarily designed for long-range strike missions into the
enemy’s heartland to destroy strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges,
factories, shipyards, and cities. Examples include the: Avro Lancaster, Heinkel
He-111, Junkers Ju 88, B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, B-29 Superfortress,
B-36 Peacemaker, B-47 Stratojet, B-52 Stratofortress, General Dynamics F-111,
Tupolev Tu-16 ‘Badger’, Tupolev Tu-160 ‘Blackjack’, and Tupolev Tu-95 ‘Bear’.
Most – if not all – recent strategic bombers are stealth, while older ones are not.
Figure 1.28 illustrates B-2 strategic stealth bomber (powered by turbofan engines)
releasing bombs and Russian strategic bomber Tu-95 Bear (powered by turboprop
engines).
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 23

Tactical bombers are smaller aircraft that operate in shorter range in the battle
zone to attack troops, tanks, and military equipments. Examples for old ones are
Junkers Ju 87 Stuka and Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik, where both are powered by
piston engines. More recent ones are A-10 Thunderbolt II, F-16 Fighting Falcon,
Panavia Tornado, Lockheed F-117, Mikoyan MiG-29, and Sukhoi Su-25
‘Frogfoot’, where all are powered by turbofan engines. Some strategic bombers
are also stealth like B-2.

Fighter
A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat with
other aircraft. Fighters are small, fast, and maneuverable. The term “fighter” is also
sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft [11]. Early
fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards and were mostly
biplanes. By World War II, fighters were predominantly all-metal monoplanes with
wing-mounted batteries of cannons or machine guns.
Grumman F7F-3 Tigercat and Lavochkin La-9 were some of the last
Grumman piston engine fighters. By the end of the war, turbojet engines
were already beginning to replace piston engines as the means of propulsion,
and increasingly sophisticated refinements to armament were already
appearing. Modern jet fighters are predominantly powered by one or two
turbofan engines and are equipped with radar as the primary method of target
acquisition. Armament consists primarily of air-to-air missiles (from as few as
two on some lightweight day fighters to as many as eight or twelve on air
superiority fighters like the Sukhoi Su-27 or Boeing F-15 Eagle; Fig. 1.29),
with a cannon as backup armament (typically between 20 and 30 mm);
however, they can also often employ air-to-surface missiles, as well as guided
and unguided bombs.
In brief, any fighter aircraft belongs to one of six groups. First generation
group subsonic jet fighters from mid-1940s to mid-1950s, second generation
include jet fighters from mid-1950s to early 1960s, third-generation jet fighters
resembles the period from early 1960s to circa 1970, fourth generation outline jet
fighters of circa 1970 to mid-1990s, 4.5th generation jet fighters available from
1990s to 2005, and lastly, the fifth generation includes jet fighters from 2005 up to
present.

Fighter-Bomber
Many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-role as
fighter-bombers. A strike fighter is an American designation for a fighter-bomber,
examples are Su-7, Su-24, Su-34, F-111, and F-15 Eagle, [12]. A multi-role capable
combat aircraft set up to operate primarily in the tactical bombing role. All are
powered by afterburning turbofan engines.
24 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.29 Fighter aircrafts: Sukhoi Su-27 and Boeing F-15 Eagle

Ground-Attack
Ground-attack aircraft is also identified as attack aircraft, fighter-bomber, tactical
fighter, tank-buster, tactical bomber, strafer, and strike aircraft. It is designed to
attack targets on the ground and is often deployed as close air support. Examples
include the American A-10 Thunderbolt II (powered by turbofan engine) and the
Russian Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot (powered by turbojet engine). Their role is tactical
rather than strategic.

Maritime Patrol
A maritime patrol aircraft, also simply patrol aircraft, or by the older term patrol
bomber, is a fixed-wing aircraft designed to operate for long durations over water in
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 25

Fig. 1.30 Maritime patrol aircraft Atlantique ATL3, France

maritime patrol, anti-shipping, anti-submarine (ASW), and search and rescue roles.
Examples for this group during Cold War and Modern eras are Beriev Be-12
(Russia), Ilyushin Il-38 (Russia), Boeing P-8 Poseidon (USA), Lockheed P-2
Neptune (USA), Atlantique ATL3 – Maritime (France), CASA CN-235, C-295
Persuader (Spain), Canadair CP-107 Argus (Canada), Fokker F-27 Maritime (Neth-
erlands), Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod (UK), and PZL M28B Bryza 1R (Poland).
Some of these aircrafts are powered by turbofan engines, while others are powered
by turboprop engines as seen in Fig. 1.30.

Enhanced Takeoff and Landing (TOL)

Enhanced Takeoff and Landing (TOL) types refer to aircrafts that can take off and
land vertically and function differently from a rotorcraft in horizontal flight. It is
subdivided into four main categories; VTOL, STOL, V/STOL, and STOVL. They
stand for vertical takeoff and landing, short takeoff and landing, short and/or
vertical takeoff, and lastly short takeoff and vertical landing, respectively. A list
of all VTOL aircraft is listed in [13]. The two famous examples for vectored thrust
aircrafts are F 35 (Fig. 1.10) and Harrier II (Fig. 1.31) aircrafts.
F-35 is powered by a single F135 turbofan engine with a lift fan, roll posts, and
rear vectoring nozzle.
Harrier aircrafts has four famous versions and powered by turbofan engines with
four swiveling nozzles.
There were also some experimental/prototypes for VTOL aircraft which are
tailless. Examples include the Ryan X-13A-RY Vertijet, Ryan Model 69, Lockheed
XFV, and Convair XFY Pogo. Ryan X-13A-RY Vertijet powered by a single RR
Avon Turbojet engine (1950s), Lockheed XFV (tailsitter prototype), and Convair
XFY Pogo tailsitter powered by a 5500 hp Allison YT40-A-16 turboprop engine.
26 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.31 Harrier II enhanced TOL aircraft

Non-Combat Military Aircrafts

Transport Tanker Trainer Experimental

Fire Fighting Surveillance Gliders

AWACS UAV Reconnaissance

Fig. 1.32 Classification of fixed wing non-combat military aircrafts

1.2.4.3.2 Non-combat Fixed Wing Military Aircrafts

As shown in Fig. 1.32, non-combat military aircrafts may be assembled into the
following groups, namely, transport, tanker (refueler), trainer, experimental,
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 27

gliders, firefighting, and surveillance. Moreover, surveillance aircrafts may be

further subdivided into three subgroups: reconnaissance, UAV, and AWACS.

Transport
Military transport aircraft are typically fixed wing cargo aircraft, which are used to
deliver troops, weapons, and other military equipment by a variety of methods to
any area of military operations outside of the commercial flight routes in
uncontrolled airspace. Some military transport aircraft are tasked to perform
multi-role duties such as aerial refueling and tactical, operational and strategic
airlifts onto unprepared runways, or those constructed by engineers. Examples for
these aircrafts are An-24, Il- 112, C-130, and Airbus A400 M, which are powered
by turboprop engines. Others are An -124, Il -76, Galaxy C-5, C-17, C-141B,
Kawasaki C-1, and C-X, which are powered by turbofan engines.

Aerial Refueling
Aerial refueling, also called air refueling, in-flight refueling (IFR), air-to-air
refueling (AAR), or tanking, is the process of transferring fuel from one aircraft
(the tanker) to another (the receiver) during flight. Figure 1.33 illustrates USAD
KC-135R is refueling US Navy F-16. Other refuelers are Airbus A400M, Boeing
C-135, KC-10 Extender, KC-135 Stratotanker, Vickers VC-10, and Il-78. All these

Fig. 1.33 Airbus A400M refueling a Spanish Air Force F/A-18 Hornet (Reproduced by permis-
sion from AIRBUS)
28 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

aircrafts are powered by turbofan engines, except Airbus A400M which is powered
by turboprop engines.

Trainer
A military trainer is an aircraft used to develop piloting, navigational, or
war-fighting skills in flight crew. Several training phases are followed which starts
usually with turboprop trainers like the Pilatus PC-9 and Embraer Tucano. The final
phase includes training for fast jet flying. Examples of such jet trainer aircraft
include the T-38 Talon (actually capable of supersonic speeds), the BAE Hawk, the
Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet, and the Aero L-39. All are powered by turbofan
engines except for T-38, which is powered by afterburning turbojet engine.

Surveillance
A surveillance aircraft are used for monitoring enemy activity, usually carrying no
armament. A surveillance aircraft does not necessarily require high-performance
capability or stealth characteristics. Technically, anything which can fly and make
observations (dynamically or via recording equipment/sensors) of visual informa-
tion or electronic emissions qualifies as a surveillance aircraft. Surveillance aircraft
are either reconnaissance, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), or Airborne Warning
and Control System (AWACS).

Airborne Reconnaissance
An airborne reconnaissance goes back to the early era of ballooning. The first
reconnaissance flights took place during the Balkan wars in October 1912 by
(Albatros) aircraft. One of the first aircrafts used for surveillance was the Rumpler
Taube during World War I. Japanese built Mitsubishi Ki-46 twin-engine reconnais-
sance aircraft in 1939. Fighters such as the British Spitfire, Mosquito, the American
P-38 Lightning, and P-51 Mustang were adapted for photo-reconnaissance during
World War II. After World War II, long range aerial reconnaissance was taken up
by adapted bombers like the English Electric Canberra and the American Martin
B-57. The first purpose-built jet covert surveillance aircraft, namely, the Lockheed
U-2 was constructed secretly for the United States. Modified versions of the U-2
remain in service in 2007. In the 1960s the SR-71 Blackbird, the fastest manned
jet-propelled aircraft ever built, was constructed as strategic reconnaissance
aircraft.
There are claims that the USA constructed a new, secret, hypersonic surveillance
aircraft – dubbed the Aurora – in the late 1980s, but no confirmation of this has ever
emerged. Another category of surveillance aircraft that has been in vogue since
World War II is the maritime patrol aircraft. These are typically large, slow
machines capable of flying continuously for many hours, with a wide range of
sensors and electronic equipments on board. Such aircraft include the Avro Shack
leton (powered by piston engines), the Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod (powered by
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 29

turbofan), the Breguet Atlantique, the P-3 Orion and the Tupolev Tu-95 (all
powered by turboprop), and the P-2 Neptune (powered by radial engines). More-
over, finally, every fighter plane and ground attack plane can be used to perform
surveillance (recent example is F-35 Joint Strike Fighter).
The second group of surveillance aircrafts is unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).

UAV
Remotely piloted vehicle (RPV), or unmanned aircraft system (UAS), is an aircraft
that flies without a human crew on board the aircraft. Their largest uses are in
reconnaissance as well as attack missions. UAV is defined as a reusable, uncrewed
vehicle capable of controlled, sustained, level flight and powered by a jet or
reciprocating engine. There are a wide variety of UAV shapes, sizes, configura-
tions, and characteristics [14]. UAVs come in two varieties: some are controlled
from a remote location, and others fly autonomously based on pre-programmed
flight plans using more complex dynamic automation systems. Figure 1.34 illus-
trates A MQ-9 Reaper, a hunter-killer surveillance UAV used by the USAF and
British Armed Forces and powered by a 950-shaft-horsepower (712 kW) turboprop
engine.

Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS)

An Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS) aircraft is designed to carry
out surveillance and C2BM (command and control, battle management) functions.

Fig. 1.34 MQ-9 Reaper, Hunter-Killer Surveillance UAV

30 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

AWACS aircraft are in service with the USAF, NATO, Russian Air Force, the
RAF, French Air Force, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan Air Force, and the Japan Air Self-
Defense Force.
Modern AWACS systems can detect aircraft from up to 400 km (250 miles)
away. In air-to-air combat, AWACS systems can communicate with friendly
aircraft, extend their sensor range, and give them added stealth, since they no longer
need their own active radar to detect threats.
Examples are Boeing E-3 Sentry (Fig. 1.35; based on the Boeing 707) and
Boeing 767 AWACS. Both are powered by turbofan engines.

Experimental
An experimental aircraft is an aircraft that has not yet been fully proven in flight.
Often this implies that new aerospace technologies are being tested on the aircraft.
The X-planes (X-1 through X-55) are a series of experimental United States aircraft
(and some rockets) [15].
The first of these, the Bell X-1, became well-known as the first plane to
break the sound barrier, which it did in 1947. Later X-planes yielded

Fig. 1.35 Boeing. E3-D Sentry AWACS aircraft

1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 31

important research results, but only the North American X-15 rocket plane of
the early 1960s achieved comparable fame. X-7 through X-12 were actually
missiles, and some other vehicles were unpiloted. Most X-planes are not
expected to ever go into full-scale production except the Lockheed Martin
X-35, which competed against the Boeing X-32 to become the Joint Strike
Fighter.

Glider
Military gliders have been used by the military of various countries for carrying
troops and heavy equipment to a combat zone, mainly during World War II. These
engineless aircraft were towed into the air and most of the way to their target by
military transport planes (e.g. C-47 Skytrain or Dakota) or bombers relegated to
secondary activities (e.g. Short Stirling). Once released from the tow craft near the
front, they were to land on any convenient open terrain close to target. These are
one-way (disposable aircrafts), thus constructed from common and inexpensive
materials such as wood, though a few were retrieved and re-used. Examples are
German Junkers Ju 322, Japanese Ku-13, Soviet Antonov A-40, and American
Waco CG-3.

Fire Fighting
Fire fighting aircraft is an airtankers or water bombers fitted with tanks that can be
filled on the ground at an air tanker base. Examples are Grumman S-2 T and C-130
(Fig. 1.36). Both are powered by turboprop engines.

1.2.5 Rotorcrafts (Rotor-Wing Aircrafts)

Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, uses a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades
(a rotary wing) to provide lift. Types as depicted in Fig. 1.37 include powered and
unpowered groups.
Unpowered are mainly rotor kites. Powered group includes three main sub-
groups, namely, helicopters, autogyro, and gyrodyne.

1.2.5.1 Powered Rotorcrafts

1.2.5.1.1 Gyrodyne

A gyrodyne is a rotorcraft with a rotor system that is normally driven by its engine
for takeoff and landing – hovering like a helicopter and its forward thrust is
obtained from a separate propulsion device (usually two propellers mounted in
tips of short or stub wings) rather than from tilting the rotor. Being able to fly in
32 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.36 Firefighting C-130 aircraft dropping water

autorotation gives the gyrodyne all of the advantages and simplicity of a gyroplane.
Figure 1.38 illustrates the famous UK gyrodyne Rotodyne powered by turboprop
engines and having a capacity of 44 passengers and speed of 200 mph.

1.2.5.1.2 Autogyro

An autogyro (sometimes called gyrocopter, gyroplane, or rotaplane) utilizes an

unpowered rotor driven by aerodynamic forces in a state of autorotation to develop
lift, and an engine-powered propeller (mostly piston), similar to that of a fixed-wing
aircraft, to provide thrust (Fig. 1.39).

1.2.5.1.3 Helicopter

Helicopters have powered rotors (single or dual). The rotors are driven (directly or
indirectly) by engine(s) that push air downwards to create lift. Rotors are driven by
the engine(s) throughout the flight, to allow the helicopter to take off vertically,
hover, fly forwards, backwards and laterally, as well as to land vertically. The first
“helicopter” flight dates back to 1907. The Frenchman Paul Cornu took off with a
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 33

Rotorcraft (Rotary-Wing Aircrafts)

Powered Unpowered Lift (Kites)

Helicopter Gyrodynes Autogyros

Single Dual

Rotor Rotors

Tandem Coaxial Inter-meshing Transvers

NOTAR Tip Ducted Tail

(No Tail

Rotor)

Fig. 1.37 Classification of rotorcrafts

helicopter and hovered at a height of 30 cm for approximately 20 s. Continuous

developments in helicopter industry lead to the extended list of helicopters. Heli-
copters have several different configurations of one or more main rotors. Each main
rotor has a number of blades between two and six.

Classifications Based on Rotor

Single Main Rotor
Helicopters with one driven main rotor require some sort of anti-torque device such
as a tail rotor, fantail, or NOTAR, except some rare examples of helicopters using
tip jet propulsion which generates almost no torque. Twin rotor has two rotor discs
which usually rotate in opposite directions, so that no tail rotor or other yaw
34 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.38 Gyrodyne rotorcraft

Fig. 1.39 Autogyro rotorcraft

1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 35

stabilizer is needed. The two rotors are arranged in tandem (one in front of the
other), transverse (side by side), coaxial (one rotor disc above the other), with
concentric drive shafts or intermeshing (where the rotor discs may be arranged to
pass through each other).

Tandem Rotor
Tandem rotor helicopters have two large horizontal rotor assemblies mounted one
in front of the other [16]. Tandem rotor helicopters use counter-rotating rotors. This
configuration is used for large cargo helicopters like CH-46 Sea Knight, CH-47
Chinook, Boeing Model 234, and Boeing Model 360.

Transverse Rotors
Transverse rotors are mounted on the end of wings or outriggers, perpendicular to
the body of the aircraft and uses differential collective pitch. This configuration is
found on the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 (powered by radial engine) and Focke-Achgelis
Fa 223 (powered by radial engines), as well as the world’s largest helicopter ever
built, the Mil Mi-12 (powered by turboshaft engines). Figure 1.40 illustrates both
tandem rotor (CH-47 Chinook) and transverse rotor (Focke-Achgelis Fa 223)
helicopters.

Coaxial Rotors
Coaxial rotors (Fig. 1.41) are a pair of helicopter rotors mounted one above the
other on concentric shafts, with the same axis of rotation, but that turn in opposite
directions. This configuration is produced by the Russian Kamov helicopter design
bureau.

Fig. 1.40 Tandem rotor (CH-47 Chinook) and transverse rotor (Focke-Achgelis Fa 223)
36 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.41 Kamkov KA32 Coaxial rotor helicopter

Fig. 1.42 HH-43 Huskie with intermeshing rotors

Intermeshing Rotors
Intermeshing rotors (sometimes referred to as a synchropter) are a set of two rotors
turning in opposite directions, with each rotor mast mounted on the helicopter with
a slight angle to the other so that the blades intermesh without colliding. The
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 37

arrangement allows the helicopter to function without the need for a tail rotor.
Figure 1.42 illustrates HH-43 Huskie helicopter with Intermeshing Rotors.
Early helicopter designs utilized rotary engines, but these were soon replaced by
more powerful automobile engines and radial engines. Next, during the first half of
the twentieth century, helicopters used the compact flat engine. Later on, turbine
engines revolutionized helicopter industry, where turboshaft engine gave helicop-
ters an engine with a large amount of power and a low weight penalty.

Civil Helicopters
Helicopters activities are daily increasing both in civilian and military disciplines.
In civil world, helicopters are used in transportation, training, construction, remote
sensing, search and rescue as well as firefighting (Fig. 1.43).

Transport
Helicopters are used as transport vehicles for commercial purposes. It includes
commercial transport, tourism, and aerial photography. Thus it may transport
employees say for oil search companies, isolated locations, or offshore sites.
Moreover, many tourism companies use helicopters for sightseeing like those in
Pyramids’ area in Giza, Egypt, and Las Vegas, USA. Moreover, equipped helicop-
ters are used in aerial photography. It is used also for transporting cargo and

Civil Helicopters

Transport Training Construction Remote Firefighting

(Aerial Sensing (Helitack)

Search and Agriculture

Tourism Aerial
Rescue
Photography

Sea MEDEVAC Mining and Police

Commercial Cargo
Air Energy Dept

Fig. 1.43 Classification of civilian helicopters

38 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

equipments. All helicopters are powered by turboshaft engines, except small types
which are powered by piston engines.

Training
Training helicopters are mostly single engine including MD500E, MD600, Bell
206 JetRanger, and Robinson R22 BetaII. All are powered by turboshaft engines
except for the last one.

Aerial Cranes
Aerial cranes or skycranes are used to lift heavy loads. Figure 1.44 illustrates
Sikorsky Skycrane S-64 (powered by turboshaft engine) carrying a house. Helicop-
ters were first used as aerial cranes in the 1950s, but attained its popularity in the
construction field in the 1960s.
The most consistent use of helicopters as aerial cranes is in the logging industry
to lift large trees out of rugged terrain. Other lift services to the construction
industry cover: HVAC removal and/or installation, steel tower construction,
powerline construction, marine salvage, remote area operations/high-rise buildings,
and congested areas and erect, remove, and replace all types of antennas and
antenna towers.

Fig. 1.44 Sikorsky Skycrane S-64 carrying a house

1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 39

Remote Sensing
Helicopters employed in aerial remote sensing for several reasons including: time
flexibility in measurement, high maneuverability, surface sampling, fills gap
between satellites and ground station, and satellite sensor calibration with helicop-
ter sensors. Typical helicopter for remote sensing are Hughes/MD 500 and BK
117, both are powered by turboshaft engines.

Search and Rescue

Search and rescue helicopters have many duties as sea or coast guard, aerial
ambulance, mining, and energy as well as police departments. Typical helicopters
are Sikorsky series H-19, HH-52A Sea Guard, S-70, HSS-2, and CH-53. All are
powered by turboshaft engines except for Sikorsky H-19, which is powered by
radial engines.
Figure 1.45 illustrates Sikorsky HH-52A Sea Guard, which has the ability to land
on the water.

Agriculture
Agriculture helicopters are used in crop spraying and dusting, seeding and spread-
ing fertilizer, frost patrol, and insect eradication. These helicopters are equipped
with special removable gear for spraying, fertilization, and generation of aerosols.
Examples are Ka-15 M and Mi-1.

Fig. 1.45 Sikorsky HH-52A sea guard

40 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Aerial Firefighting
Aerial firefighting is the use of aircraft and other aerial resources to combat
wildfires. Aircraft may be fixed-wing or helicopters. Helicopters may be fitted
with tanks or carry buckets. Buckets are usually filled by submerging in lakes,
rivers, reservoirs, or portable tanks. Popular firefighting helicopters include variants
of the Bell 205 (Fig. 1.46) and the Erickson S-64 Aircrane helitanker, which
features a sea snorkel for filling while in flight. Both are powered by turboshaft
engines.

Military Helicopters
A military helicopter is a helicopter that is either specifically built or converted for
use by military forces. A military helicopter’s mission is a function of its design or
conversion. The most common types of military helicopters are transport, attack,
training, experimental, search and rescue, UAV, maritime, tactics and operation,
and finally observation (Fig. 1.47).

Attack
Attack helicopters are armed helicopters used in the antitank and close air support
roles.

Fig. 1.46 Firefighting Bell 205 dropping water

1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 41

Military Helicopters

Attack Trainer Transport Experimental

Multi- Maritime Observation UAV

Tactics
Mission
And
and
Operation
Rescue

High Intensity Warfare Low Intensity Warfare

Fig. 1.47 Military helicopters

Weapons used on attack helicopters can include autocannons, machine-guns,

rockets, and guided missiles such as the Hellfire. Today’s attack helicopter has two
main roles: first, to provide direct and accurate close air support for ground troops,
and the second, in the anti tank role to destroy enemy armor concentrations.
Examples are Mi -24P and Kamov Ka-50, Westland WAH-64 Apache, Boeing
AH-64A Apache, Bell 209/AH-1 HueyCobra, Boeing/Sikorsky RAH-66 Coman-
che, Z-10, Eurocopter Tiger, Augusta A 129 Mangusta, and Denel AH-2 Rooivalk.
All are powered by turboshaft engines (Fig. 1.48).

Trainer
Trainer helicopter is used for air education. An example for this category is
HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopter, which is powered by turboshaft engine.

Transport
Transport helicopters are used in places where the use of conventional aircraft
is impossible. It lands easily in any area. Transport helicopters are operated in
assault, medium, and heavy classes. Examples for this category are
Aerospatiale SA 231 Super Frelon, Eurocopter Puma/Cougar, Eurocopter
Dolphin/Panther, NH Industries NH 90, HAL Dhruv, PZL Swidnik W-3
Sokol, Mil Mi-8 Hip, Mil Mi-26 Halo, Westland Lynx, Sikorsky S-70A/UH-
60 Black Hawk, and Boeing Helicopters CH-47 Chinook. All are powered by
turboshaft engines.
42 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.48 Attack helicopter Mi -24P

Experimental
Experimental helicopter as mentioned earlier is an aircraft that has not yet been
fully proven in flight. As an example, X-49A “Speedhawk”, Eurocopter X3,
Kamov Ka-50, Mil Mi-X1, and Sikorsky S-97. All are powered by turboshaft
engines.

Search and Rescue (SAR)

Multi-mission and rescue, or Search and Rescue (SAR) which is sometimes iden-
tified as Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR) are helicopters that perform search and
rescue missions in land and sea. The main objective is to use of available resources
(personnel and facilities) to assist persons, ships, or crafts in potential or actual
distress and provide for their initial medical or other needs, and deliver them to a
place of safety. Examples are CH-118 Iroquois, CH-149 Cormorant, CH-146
Griffon, CH 53GS, HH 60/Pave Hawk, and HH-52A. A sub-group of this category
is Medical evacuation (MEDEVAC). The US military has recently employed UH-
60 Black Hawk helicopters to provide air ambulance service. Also coast-guard
helicopters like HH-65A Dolphin – which used in saving hundreds of lives since
introduction in 1987 – belongs to this sub-category. All are powered by turboshaft
engines.
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 43

Maritime Helicopters
Maritime helicopters operate from ships, destroyers, cruisers, and battleships. It
may act as anti-submarine warfare (ASW), anti-shipping, transport, SAR, and
reconnaissance roles. It must have enhanced protection against salt water cor-
rosion and protection against ingestion of water. Examples are Royal Navy
AgustaWestland EH101 Merlin anti-submarine warfare & medium-lift trans-
port/utility helicopter, LAMPS SH-60B Seahawk, and Kamov Ka-27 (Fig.
1.49).

Tactics and Operations Helicopters

This category of helicopters gives a force multiplier that maximizes their impact in
a combined arms approach. It is employed both as high- and low-intensity warfare.
High-intensity warfare is characterized by large arrays of conventional armed
forces, like Cobra helicopters, which armament included anti-tank missiles, such
as the Nord SS.11, and 3M11 Falanga missiles. Concerning low-intensity warfare,
helicopters are used in counter-insurgency (COIN) warfare. It is powered by
turboshaft engines.

Fig. 1.49 Maritime helicopter LAMPS SH-60B Seahawk

44 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Observation
Observation helicopters were initially limited to visual observation thus featured
rounded, well-glazed cockpits for maximum visibility. Today, they include low
light level television and forward looking infrared cameras. Often, these are
mounted in a stabilized mount along with multi-function lasers capable of
rangefinder and targeting designators for weapons systems.
Examples are Gazelle, OH-58 Kiowa, Kawasaki OH-1, and Tiger ARH. All are
powered by turboshaft engines

UAV
UAV rotorcraft also flies without a human crew on board similar to fixed wing
UAV. They are powered by a jet or reciprocating engine. In addition to conducting
intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, it successfully could achieve new
goals. Boeing’s A160T Hummingbird UAV has the ability to resupply frontline
troops in rough terrain (Fig. 1.50). Northrop Grumman Corporation’s RQ-8 Fire
Scout unmanned air vehicle (UAV) can successfully fire two rockets and has the
ability of vertical landings on a moving ship without a pilot controlling the aircraft.

1.2.6 Hybrid Fixed/Rotary Wings

Hybrid fixed/rotary wing aircrafts are a group of aircraft that combines features of
both fixed wing and aircrafts and rotorcrafts. Figure 1.2.38 illustrates that this group

Fig. 1.50 Boeing’s A160T Hummingbird UAV

1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 45

Fig. 1.51 Classification of

hybrid fixed/rotary wings Hybrid Fixed/Rotary Wing Aircrafts
aircraft

Tilt Rotor Coleopter Tilt Wing

Mono Tilt Rotor Mono-tilt-rotor rotary-ring

includes five sub-groups, namely: tiltrotor, tiltwing, coleopter, mono tiltrotor, and
Mono-tilt-rotor rotary-ring. The first two sub-groups are the most famous types
(Fig. 1.51).

1.2.6.1 Tiltrotor

Tiltrotor represents a compound rotorcraft and vectored thrust [17]. Examples for
tiltrotor are Ospery V-22, Bell XV-3, Doak VZ-4, Bell X-22, Aérospatiale N
500, Bell XV-15, Bell Eagle Eye, and Bell/Agusta BA609. Figure 1.52 illustrates
V-22 Ospery with US marines jumping from. The Osprey V-22 can be armed with
several types of machine guns pointing rearward that can be fired when the loading
ramp is lowered.

1.2.6.2 Tiltwing

Tiltwing aircraft features a wing that is horizontal for conventional forward flight
and rotates up for vertical takeoff and landing. Tiltwing aircraft are typically fully
capable of VTOL operations. The tiltwing design offers certain advantages in
vertical flight relative to a tiltrotor. Figure 1.53 illustrates Hiller X-18 tiltwing
aircraft.

1.2.6.3 Coleopter

A coleopter is a type of vertical take-off and landing aircraft design where the
fuselage is surrounded by an annular wing. The aircraft is intended to take off and
land on its tail.
SNECMA Coléoptère machine may have been the first of this type of aircraft to
actually be constructed; the approach itself was first put forward in Germany late in
World War II.
46 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.52 Tilt Rotor Ospery V-22

SNECMA’s experiences demonstrated formidable control problems, both with

balancing the aircraft during vertical flight, and in transitioning between vertical
and horizontal flight and back. An American design, the Hiller VXT-8, was
abandoned before a prototype was ever built.

1.2.6.4 Mono Tiltrotor

A mono tiltrotor aircraft combines the vertical lift capability and structural effi-
ciency of a helicopter with the speed and range of an airplane [18].
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 47

Fig. 1.53 Hiller X-18 tilt wing aircrafts

1.2.6.5 Mono-Tilt-Rotor Rotary Wing

A mono-tilt-rotor rotary-ring VTOL aircraft is currently under development. It

differs from previous tiltrotors in that instead of each rotor consisting of long blades
attached to a central rotary ring; it has a single rotary ring which has a diameter
equal to the entire wingspan of the aircraft, with the ring being attached to the tips of
the wings [19].

1.2.7 Other Methods of Lift Aircrafts

It includes the following sub-groups: Flapping Wing, Lifting Body, and FanWing.

1.2.7.1 Flapping Wing or Ornithopter

Flapping wing or ornithopter is an aircraft that flies by flapping its wings

similar to the flight of birds, bats, and insects. Though machines may differ in
form, they are usually built on the same scale as these flying creatures. Suc-
cessful manned ornithopters have been built and flew in 1942 at Munich-Laim
and more recently in 2006 at Canada. German ornithopter was driven by small
flapping wings mounted at the sides of the fuselage, behind a larger fixed wing.
Fitted with a 3 hp Sachs motorcycle engine, it made flights up to 15 min in
duration. Canadian UTIAS Ornithopter No.1 designed by Professor James
DeLaurier and his team made a jet-assisted takeoff and 14-second flight
(Fig. 1.54).
48 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.54 UTIAS Ornithopter No.1

1.2.7.2 Lifting Body

A lifting body is an aircraft configuration in which the body itself produces lift. A
lifting body is a fuselage that generates lift without the shape of a typical thin and
flat wing structure. Lifting bodies generally minimize the drag and structure of a
wing for very high supersonic or hypersonic flight or spacecraft re-entry. In the
period 1963 to 1975, Dryden Flight Research Center built the following lifting
body vehicles M2-F1, M2-F2, M2-F3, HL-10, X-24A, and X-24B. The X-24
(Fig. 1.55) was one of a group of lifting bodies flown by the NASA to demon-
strate the ability of pilots to maneuver and safely land wingless vehicles designed
to fly back to Earth from space and be landed like an airplane at a predetermined
site.

1.2.7.3 FanWing

FanWing or fan wing is a concept for a type of aircraft. It uses a fixed wing with
a forced airflow produced by cylindrical fans mounted above the wing. Its
makers claim it is the first horizontal-rotored integral lift and propulsion wing
in history to sustain flight. A prototype was tested in 2007. It was airborne after a
ground roll of just 1 m and had a flight speed of 29 km/h and endurance of
80 min. Its maximum take-off weight was 12 kg and powered by a 1.2 kW
electric motor.
1.2 Classifications of Aircrafts 49

Fig. 1.55 X-24 lifting body

Example 1.1 Complete the following table

Aircraft STOVL Agricultural Bomber Skycrane Tiltwing Long haul Balloon

aircraft transport
Aircraft
type
Aero-
engine
Vehicle
example

Solution
First of all, some questions have to be answered:
• Does this vehicle belong to aerostat or aerodyne?
• Whether this vehicle is a fixed wing or a rotorcraft type?
• Is it of civilian or military nature?
• If civilian to which group does it belong?
• If military, whether it is a combat or non-combat military?
50 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Let us proceed,
1. The first vehicle is STOVL, which stands for a short takeoff and vertical landing.
It is an aerodyne, fixed wing, military and combat aircraft. Next, it is normally
powered by an afterburning turbofan engine. An example for this aircraft is F35
aircraft.
2. Agricultural aircraft is also an aerodyne, fixed wing, civilian aircraft. It is
normally powered by a piston engine. An example is HAL HA-31powered by
single Avco Lycoming IO-720-C1B flat-eight piston engine, 400 hp
(298 kW).
3. Bomber is also an aerodyne, fixed wing, military, and combat aircraft. It is either
powered by a turbofan or turboprop engine. Examples may be strategic B
52, B-2 strategic stealth, and Russian strategic bomber Tu-95 Bear.
4. Skycrane is an aerodyne, rotorcraft, civilian helicopter. It is powered by turbo-
shaft engine. An example is S-64 helicopter.
5. Tiltwing an aerodyne, hybrid fixed/rotary wing vehicle, research non-combat
military aircraft. It is powered by a jet engine. Example is Hiller X-18 aircraft
powered by single turbojet and two turboprop engines.
6. Long haul transport is an aerodyne, fixed wing, civilian transport aircraft. It is
powered by a high bypass turbofan engine. Examples are Boeing 747, 777, and
Airbus A380 aircrafts.
7. Balloon is an aerostat unpowered vehicle. No aero engines are needed for its
propulsion/motion. First balloon was flown by Montgolfier Brothers on October
1783. The highest altitude achieved by a balloon was 21,067 m by Chinese
Vijaypat Singhania on November 26, 2005.

Aircraft STOVL Agricultural Bomber Skycrane Tiltwing Long Balloon

aircraft haul
transport
Aircraft Fixed Fixed wing Fixed Civil Hybrid fixed/ Fixed Aerostat
type wing civil wing helicopter rotary wing wing, unpowered
combat combat Research civilian vehicle
military military non-combat transport
military aircraft
Example F35 HAL HA-31 B-2 S-64 Hiller X-18 Boeing First balloon
777 (Montgolfier
Brother, October
1783) and
highest altitude
(21,067 m) by
Chinese Vijaypat
Singhania
November
26, 2005
Aero- Turbofan Piston Turbofan Turboshaft One J34 Wes- Turbofan No engine
engine engine tinghouse tur-
bojet engine
+ Two Allison
T40-A-14
Turboprop
engine
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 51

1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems

An aircraft engine (or aero engine) is a propulsion system for an aircraft. Aircraft
engines are the key module or the heart in aviation progress. Since the early days of
successful flight, the developments of both aero engines and aircraft structure are
concurrent. Aero engines must be:
• Reliable, as losing power in an airplane, is a substantially greater problem than
in road vehicles
• Operate at extreme temperature, pressure, and speed
• Light weight as a heavy engine increases the empty weight of the aircraft and
reduces its payload
• Powerful, to overcome the weight and drag of the aircraft
• Small and easily streamlined to minimize the created drag
• Field repairable to keep the cost of replacement down. Minor repairs should be
relatively inexpensive and possible outside of specialized shops
• Fuel efficient to give the aircraft the range and maneuverability the design
requires
• Capable of operating at sufficient altitude for the aircraft
• Generate the least noise
• Generates the least emission
Aero engines may be classified based on input power into three main categories,
namely, internal combustion engines, external combustion engines, and other
power sources (Fig. 1.56).

1.3.1 External Combustion

External combustion engines are steam, stirling, or nuclear engines. In these types,
all heat transfer takes place through the engine wall. This is in contrast to an internal
combustion engine where the heat input is by combustion of a fuel within the body
of the working fluid. Detailed description of the three types will be given hereafter.

1.3.1.1 Steam Engines

Steam aircraft are aircraft that are propelled by steam engines. They were unusual
devices because of the difficulty in producing a power plant with a high enough
power to weight ratio to be practical.
In 1899, Gustave Whitehead built and flew a steam powered airplane in Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania, and later on in Hartford, Connecticut. However, this flight has
never been verified satisfactorily; there are no photographs, news, stories, or other
media from 1899 to confirm it.
52 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Aircraft Engines

Solar/

Electric
Internal
External Others
Steam
Combustion Human
Combustion
Stirling Engines
Engines

Nuclear
Reaction Engines Shaft based

Turbine Athodyd or
Continuous Intermittent
based Ram-based

Ramjet
Wankel Reciprocating

Pulsejet

Scramjet Turboprop Turboshaft Propfan

Turbo-ram Turbo- Turbojet Turbofan Advanced

Rocket Ducted

Fig. 1.56 Classification of propulsion systems

In 1902, Louis Gagnon flew a steam helicopter in Rossland, British Columbia,

called the “Flying Steam Shovel”. Control problems caused a crash.
On 12 April 1933, a Travel Air 2000 biplane made the world’s first piloted flight
under steam power over Oakland, California. Brothers Besler (George and Wil-
liam) flew a prototype steam powered biplane, based on a Travel Air 2000, several
times (taking off, circling about, and landing, to show the ease of control) at
Oakland airport. Airplane remained aloft for 5 min at each time. It was powered
by a two-cylinder, double-acting reciprocating, 90
V engine, 150 hp (110 kW)
weighing about 500 lbs.
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 53

Steam is generated from water by burning cheap crude oil. Sealed condensers
return the steam from the cylinders to the boiler with only 1 % loss. Constant
pressure in the boilers is maintained by electric gauges, which automatically ignite
the burners when pressure begins to fall. Take-off pressure can be generated in
1 min. It was capable of STOL operation due to the ease of reversing thrust.
The strangest feature of the flight was its relative silence. The advantages of this
engine were the elimination of audible noise and destructive vibration; greater
efficiency at low engine speeds and also at high altitudes where lower air temper-
atures assisted condensation; reduced likelihood of engine failure; reduced main-
tenance and fuel costs. However, steam reciprocating engine turned out to be
unsuitable for scaling up to the needs of large aircraft. Thus at present days no
single aircraft is powered by steam engine.

1.3.1.2 Stirling Engines

A stirling engine is a heat engine having either air or other gas as a working fluid. It
operates by cyclic compression and expansion of the working fluid, at different
temperature levels such that there is a net conversion of heat energy to mechanical
work. Stirling engines have many advantages like high power density and low cost,
quieter, less polluting, gain efficiency with altitude due to lower ambient temper-
atures; more reliable due to fewer parts and the absence of an ignition system,
produce much less vibration (airframes last longer), and safer, less explosive fuels
may be used. However, they have low power density compared to the commonly
used piston engines and gas turbine. This issue made them critical for use as aircraft
engines.

1.3.1.3 Nuclear Engines

A nuclear aircraft is an aircraft powered by nuclear energy. Research into them was
pursued during the Cold War by the United States and the Soviet Union as they
would presumably allow a country to keep nuclear bombers in the air for extremely
long periods of time, a useful tactic for nuclear deterrence. Neither country created
any nuclear aircraft in production numbers. One design problem, never adequately
solved, was the need for heavy shielding to protect the crew from radiation
sickness. Also, in consideration, was the ecological impact of a crash during
operations. Should one of these aircrafts were to crash in a populated area, the
radiation fallout could have been disastrous.

1.3.1.3.1 U.S. Programs

In May 1946, the Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft (NEPA) project
was started by the United States Air Force. Studies under this program were
54 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

done until May 1951, when NEPA was replaced by the Aircraft Nuclear Pro-
pulsion (ANP) program. The ANP program included provisions for studying two
different types of nuclear-powered jet engines, General Electric’s Direct Air
Cycle and Pratt & Whitney’s Indirect Air Cycle. ANP also contained plans for
two B-36 s to be modified by Convair under the MX-1589 project; one of the
B-36 s was to be used to study shielding requirements for an airborne reactor
while the other was to be the X-6. However, the program was cancelled before
the X-6 was built.
The Oak Ridge National Laboratory conducted research (Aircraft Reactor
Experiment) to produce a nuclear powered aircraft. GE produced the X-39 engine,
which was a modified version of its J47s turbojet engine. The USA designed these
engines to be used in a new specially designed nuclear bomber, the X-6. The X-6
was eventually terminated by Eisenhower.
The General Electric program in Evendale, Ohio, relied upon direct air cycle
program because of its advantages in simplicity, reliability, suitability, and quick
start ability. Conventional jet engine compressor and turbine sections were used,
with the compressed air run through the reactor itself to heat it before being
exhausted through the turbine.
The Indirect Air Cycle program was assigned to Pratt & Whitney, at a facility
near Middletown, Connecticut. This concept would have produced far less radio-
active pollution. One or two loops of liquid metal would carry the heat from the
reactor to the engine. The Indirect Cycle program never approached anywhere near
producing flight-ready hardware.
On September 5, 1951, the USAF awarded Consolidated-Vultee a contract to fly
a nuclear reactor onboard a modified Convair B-36 under the MX-1589 project of
the ANP program. The NB-36H Nuclear Test Aircraft (NTA) was to study
shielding requirements for an airborne reactor, to determine whether a nuclear
aircraft was feasible. This was the only known airborne reactor experiment by the
U.S. with an operational nuclear reactor on board. The NTA flew a total of 47 times
testing the reactor over West Texas and Southern New Mexico. The reactor, named
the Aircraft Shield Test Reactor (ASTR), was operational but did not power the
plane, rather the primary purpose of the flight program was shield testing. Based on
the results of the NTA, the X-6 and the entire nuclear aircraft program were
abandoned in 1961.

1.3.1.3.2 Soviet Programs

The Soviet program of developing nuclear aircraft resulted in the experimental

Tupolev 119 (Tu-95 LAL), which was based on a Tupolev Tu-95M bomber. It had
2 conventional turboprop engines and 2 experimental ‘inboard’ direct cycle jet
engines powered by a minimally shielded nuclear reactor in the main fuselage. The
Tu-119 completed 34 research flights. Most of these were made with the reactor
shut down. The main purpose of the flight phase was examining the effectiveness of
the radiation shielding which was one of the main concerns for the engineers.
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 55

Massive amounts of protection used resulted in radiation levels low enough to

consider continuing development. But, as in the US, development never continued
past this point. Budgetary constraints and the development of new conventional
aircrafts designs were cited as the main reason for the cancellation of the program in
August 1966. Several other projects reached only design phase.

1.3.1.4 Final Comment

As described above, the three external combustion engines are not appropriate for
employment in aviation field for different reasons. Steam engines are only appro-
priate for small aircrafts while large ones need heavy boilers, piping and other
accessories. Stirling engines generate also low power which is also improper for
present aircrafts. Nuclear engines have two drawbacks regarding shielding of flight
crew and passengers versus radiation, as well as the risk of crash in residence areas
leading to catastrophic situation.

1.3.2 Internal Combustion

Internal combustion engines have two broad categories; namely, shaft and reaction
engines. Shaft engines are either of the intermittent or continuous types. Moreover,
intermittent combustion engines may be either of the reciprocating or the Wankel
(rotary design) types. Continuous combustion engines, which may also be identified
as turbine shaft engines, are next categorized as turboprop, turboshaft and propfan
engines. The other main group of internal combustion is the reaction engines. This
engine group is either of the athodyd (where athodyd stands for Aero THermODY-
namic Duct) or turbine types. Athodyd group includes ramjet, pulsejet and scramjet
engines, while turbine engines includes turbojet, turbofan, turbo ramjet, turbo
rocket and advanced ducted fan engines.

1.3.2.1 Shaft Engines

Shaft engines as previously defined are classified, based on type of combustion, into
two subgroups; namely, intermittent combustion and continuous combustion.

1.3.2.1.1 Intermittent Combustion

Intermittent combustion engines are either Wankel or reciprocating engines.

56 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Wankel Engine
The Wankel engine invented by German engineer Felix Wankel in 1950, is a type of
internal combustion engine which uses a rotary design to convert pressure into a
rotating motion. Figure 1.57 illustrates Diamond DA20 aircraft powered by Wankel
engine. Its four-stroke cycle takes place in a space between the inside of an oval-
like epitrochoid-shaped housing and a rotor that is similar in shape to a Reuleaux
triangle but with sides that are somewhat flatter [20]. This design delivers smooth
high-rpm power from a compact size. The first Wankel rotary-engine aircraft was
the experimental Lockheed Q-Star in 1968/1969. It was powered by a 185 hp
Curtiss-Wright RC2-60 Wankel rotary engine. The compact size and quiet opera-
tion of Wankel engine encouraged its usage in UAVs. Wankel engines are also
becoming increasingly popular in homebuilt experimental aircraft being very cheap
compared with certified aircraft engines, providing engines ranging from 100 to
300 horsepower (220 kW) at a fraction of the cost of traditional engines. Wankel
engines operate at a relatively high rotational speed with relatively low torque, thus,
propeller aircraft must use a Propeller Speed Reduction Unit (PSRU) to keep
conventional propellers within the proper speed range.

Piston Engine
A Piston engine, also often known as a reciprocating engine, is a heat engine that
uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. It

Fig. 1.57 Wankel engine

1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 57

Piston Engines

In-line Rotary Opposed V-Type Radial

Fig. 1.58 Classification of piston engines

is well known that piston engine powered the first ever piloted motorized flight
made by Orville and Wilbur Wright on 17th December 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North
Carolina, USA. Since then, continuous developments were enhanced. Piston
engines may be classified into five groups as shown in Fig. 1.58. These are
in-line, rotary, V-type, radial, and opposed. These engines are coupled to a propel-
ler to furnish the forward flight of airplanes.

In-Line
An in-line engine has cylinders lined up in one row. It typically has an even number
of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five- cylinder engines. Inline
engines were common in early aircraft, including the Wright Flyer (12 horsepower),
the aircraft that made the first controlled powered flight. An in-line engine may be
air cooled but mostly liquid cooled.
The biggest advantage of an inline engine is that it allows the aircraft to be
designed with a narrow frontal area for low drag. If the engine crankshaft is located
above the cylinders, it is called an inverted inline engine, which allows the propeller
to be mounted up high for ground clearance even with short landing gear. The
disadvantages of an inline engine include a poor power-to-weight ratio, because the
crankcase and crankshaft are long and thus heavy. Thus inline design was aban-
doned, becoming a rarity in modern aviation.

Rotary Engine
Rotary engine was extensively used in World War I as it is lightweight, powerful,
cheap, and easy to manufacture in large quantities. Rotary engines have all the
cylinders in a circle around the crankcase like a radial engine, but the difference is
that the crankshaft is bolted to the airframe, and the propeller is bolted to the engine
case. The entire engine rotates with the propeller, providing plenty of airflow for
cooling regardless of the aircraft’s forward speed. Some of these engines were a
two-stroke design, giving them a high specific power and power-to-weight ratio.
Unfortunately, the severe gyroscopic effects from the heavy rotating engine made
the aircraft very difficult to fly. The engines also consumed large amounts of castor
oil, spreading it all over the airframe and creating fumes which were nauseating to
the pilots.
58 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Radial Engine
Radial engine has one or more rows of cylinders arranged in a circle around a
centrally located crankcase. Each row must have an odd number of cylinders in
order to produce smooth operation. A radial engine has only one crank throw per
row and a relatively small crankcase, resulting in a favorable power to weight ratio.
Because the cylinder arrangement exposes a large amount of the engine’s heat
radiating surfaces to the air and tends to cancel reciprocating forces, radials tend to
cool evenly and run smoothly. Wasp engine, completed in the Christmas eve of
1925, was a radial piston engine with a 1340 cubic inches displacement and
manufactured by Pratt & Whitney company (P&W). Wasp engines dominated
Navy and Army Air Force fighter planes as well as commercial transports. It
powered approximately 100 different experimental and production airplanes
including Boeing 40A, Boeing F2B-1 shipboard fighters, and Ford Tri-Motor. By
the early 1930s, P&W worked on twin-row radial engines. Its twin Wasp (1830
cubic inches and 1350 horsepower) performed magnificently. A total of 173,618
engines were produced that powered a large number of fighters, bombers (which
participated later in WWII), and transports. The twin Wasp was followed by Double
Wasp, which is an 18-cylinder twin-row radial with 2800 cubic inches of displace-
ment. P&W engines from the wasp to the Double Wasp produced, licensed, and
affiliated over 363,000 engines. Wasp major was the last P&W piston engine. It was
28-cylinder, 4360 cubic inch displacement and rated power up to 4300 horsepower.
The cylinders were four in rows, arranged for a spiral for better cooling. Its primary
application was in heavy transport and bombers. Examples are Boeing’s giant
double-decked Strato-cruiser, the 377 and Air Force B-50; both were powered by
four Wasp Majors.
BMW 801 was the first German double-row radial engine manufactured in 1940/
1941. Figure 1.59 illustrates both rotary and radial piston engines.

Fig. 1.59 Rotary and radial piston engines

1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 59

V-Type
Cylinders in V-type engine are arranged in two in-line banks, tilted 30-60
apart
from each other. The vast majority of V engines are water-cooled. Perhaps the most
famous example of this design is the legendary Rolls Royce Merlin engine, a 27-l
(1649 in3) 60
V12 engine used in, among others, the Spitfires that played a major
role in the Battle of Britain (Fig. 1.60).

Opposed-Type
An opposed-type engine has two banks of cylinders on opposite sides of a centrally
located crankcase; ULPower UL260i as an example. The engine is either air cooled
or liquid cooled, but air cooled versions predominate. Opposed engines are
mounted with the crankshaft horizontal in airplanes, but may be mounted with
the crankshaft vertical in helicopters. Due to the cylinder layout, reciprocating
forces tend to cancel, resulting in a smooth running engine. Opposed, air-cooled
four and six cylinder piston engines are by far the most common engines used in
small general aviation aircraft requiring up to 400 horsepower (300 kW) per engine.
Aircraft which require more than 400 horsepower (300 kW) per engine tend to be
powered by turbine engines.

1.3.2.1.2 Continuous Combustion Engines

Continuous combustion engines are mainly turbine shaft engines. It includes

turboprop turboshaft and propfan engines. They are featured with rotating elements

Fig. 1.60 The Rolls-Royce Merlin V-12 piston aero engine

60 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

known as turbomachines, as sub-modules. These modules may be fan, compressor(s),

and turbine(s) as well as propellers/propfans.

Turboprop
Turboprop engines powers both civil and military transport aircrafts with a cruise
speed less 450 mph (700 km). It is composed of a gas generator (compressor,
combustion chamber and turbine) as well as a propeller. The turbine drives both
compressor and propeller. Because gas turbines optimally spin at high speed, a
turboprop features a gearbox to lower the speed of the shaft so that the propeller tips
do not reach supersonic speeds. An alternative to the above turboprop engines, a
second turbine is added which drives only the propeller either directly or via a
gearbox. The first turbine in this case drives the compressor only. Thus it is free to
rotate at its own best speed (referred to as a free- or power-turbine). The other
turbine is identified as compressor-turbine. Recent turboprop engines generate
thrust force from both propeller and exhaust jet stream. A fraction of 10–20 % of
thrust is generated from jet stream. Consequently, some people classify turboprop
as jet engine or reaction engine. Figure 1.61 illustrates two turboprop engines, the
left is a single-shafted one with propeller coupled to compressor-turbine shaft and
the right one is of the free turbine type.
Examples for turboprop engines are Rolls-Royce T56 (3460 shaft horsepower
installed to P-3 Orion, C-130, C-2A aircrafts), Rolls-Royce AE2100 engine
(3600–6000 shp installed to C-27 J Spartan, ShinMaywa US-1A Kai aircrafts),
and Rolls-Royce TP400-D6 engine (11,000 + shp installed to Airbus Military
A400M aircraft). The T34 is one of the earliest turboprop engines manufactured
by Pratt & Whitney, which powered B-17 flying testbed, KC-97 J, and Douglas
C-133A Cargomaster. PT6 turboprop engine (Pratt & Whitney of Canada) is the
most popular power plant in its class (475–1650 hp). It has been selected for more
than 130 different business, commuter, trainer, and utility aircraft applications.
Example for GE turboprop engines is CT7, which power Saab 340 and CASA-
IPTN CN235.

Prop Gearbox Compressor Turbine Exhaust

Shaft Combustion
chamber

Single Shaft Free Turbine

Fig. 1.61 Two types of turboprop engine

1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 61

Turboshaft
Turboshaft engines are used primarily for helicopters and auxiliary power units. A
turboshaft engine is very similar to a turboprop, with a key difference: In a
turboprop the propeller is supported by the engine, and the engine is bolted to the
airframe. In a turboshaft, the engine does not provide any direct physical support to
the helicopter’s rotors. The rotor is connected to a transmission, which itself is
bolted to the airframe, and the turboshaft engine simply feeds the transmission via a
rotating shaft. The distinction is seen by some as a slim one, as in some cases
aircraft companies make both turboprop and turboshaft engines based on the same
design. An example for turboshaft engine is GE T700, which powers Seahawk
helicopter (Fig. 1.62).
Other examples for turboshaft engines are Rolls-Royce RTM322 (2100–2550
shp, which powers AgustaWestland WAH-64 Apache), Rolls-Royce Gnome
(1175–1660 shp, which powers AgustaWestland Sea King and Kawasaki/Boeing
Vertol 107), and T800 (1360–1680 shp, which powers AgustaWestland Super Lynx
300/3 CTS800) manufactured by LHTEC, a joint venture between Rolls-Royce and
Honeywell. GE T700 is one of the historical turboshaft engines that powers the
Marine Corps “SuperCobra” built by Bell, military Sikorsky H-60 and international
versions of the Sikorsky S-70. The commercial version of T700, namely, CT7,
powers Bell 214ST, Sikorsky S-70C, and Westland WS-70.

Propfan
A propfan or an unducted fan (sometimes denoted in former Soviet Union as
turbopropfan) is a modified turbofan engine, with the fan placed outside of the
engine nacelle on the same axis as the compressor blades. Propfans are also known
as ultra-high bypass (UHB) engines and, most recently, open rotor jet engines. The
design is intended to offer the speed and performance of a turbofan, with the fuel
economy of a turboprop.
The propfan concept was developed to deliver better fuel efficiency than con-
temporary turbofans. However, this achievement has noise penalty. Most propfans

Fig. 1.62 GE T700 turboshaft engine powering Seahawk helicopter

62 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.63 General electric GE-36 unducted fan (propfan) engine

are experimental engines. Examples are General Electric’s GE36 Unducted Fan and
Pratt & Whitney/Allison 578-DX. General Electric’s GE36 Unducted Fan
(Fig. 1.63) was a variation on NASA’s original propfan concept and appears similar
to a pusher configuration for piston or turboprop engines.
McDonnell Douglas developed a proof-of-concept aircraft by modifying its
MD-80. They removed the JT8D turbofan engine from the left side of the fuselage
and replaced it with the GE36. The test flights conducted in Mojave, CA, USA, and
ended in 1988 demonstrated a 30 % reduction in fuel burn over turbo-fan powered
MD-80 and low-levels of exterior and interior noise/vibration. However, due to
jet-fuel price drops and shifting marketing priorities, Douglas shelved the program
the following year.
In the 1980s, Allison collaborated with Pratt & Whitney on demonstrating the
578-DX propfan. The 578-DX was successfully flight tested on a McDonnell
Douglas MD-80. However, none of the above projects came to fruition, mainly
because of excessive cabin noise (compared to turbofans) and low fuel prices.
The Ivchenko-Progress D-27 propfan developed in the USSR with the propfan
blades at the front of the engine in a tractor configuration (Fig. 1.64). D-27’s
propfans propelled the Antonov An-70. D-27 propfan engine is a three-shaft
propfan engine with a propeller diameter of 4.5 m and dry weight of 1650 kg
(3638 lb). Its gas generator is made up of an axial low-pressure compressor, a
mixed-flow high-pressure compressor, an annular combustion chamber, a single-
stage high-pressure turbine, and a single-stage low-pressure turbine. The SV-27
contra-rotating propfan is driven by a four-stage turbine via a shaft connected to a
planetary reduction gear.
With the current high price for jet fuel and the emphasis on engine/airframe
efficiency to reduce emissions, there is renewed interest in the propfan concept for
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 63

Fig. 1.64 The Ivchenko-progress D-27 powering an-70 aircraft

jetliners that might come into service beyond the Boeing 787 and Airbus
A350XWB. For instance, Airbus has patented aircraft designs with twin rear-
mounted counter-rotating propfans.

1.3.2.2 Reaction Engines

The other main group of internal combustion engines, namely, the reaction engines
is next subdivided into the athodyd (where athodyd stands for Aero THermODY-
namic Duct) or turbine types. Athodyd group includes ramjet, pulsejet, and scramjet
engines. Turbine engines include engines that have turbomachinery modules, which
combine all types of turbojet, turbofan, turbo ramjet, turbo rocket, and advanced
ducted fan engines. In short, all reaction engines develop its propulsive force as a
reaction to the jet exhaust gases. Three essential modules are seen in all reaction
types, namely, an entry duct (sometimes identified as inlet duct or intake), a
combustion chamber or burner, and an exhaust nozzle. The exhaust nozzle
(s) accelerate air/gases to greater speeds than flight speed, thus create thrust that
pushes the aircraft forward.
64 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

1.3.2.2.1 Athodyd Types

Athodyd group includes ramjet, pulsejet, and scramjet engines, which do not have
any major rotating elements or turbomachinery. The pulsejet operates intermit-
tently and has found limited applications [21]. In ramjet engines, ram compression
of the air becomes sufficient to overcome the need for mechanical compression.
Ramjet engine is also appropriate for supersonic flight speeds [22]. If the flight
speed is so high, fuel combustion must occur supersonically, and then this ramjet is
called a scramjet [23].

Ramjet Engine
A ramjet, sometimes referred to as a stovepipe jet, is a form of jet engine using the
engine’s forward motion to admit and compress incoming air, without a rotary
compressor. Ramjets cannot produce thrust at zero airspeed and thus cannot move
an aircraft from a standstill. It is composed of three modules: inlet duct, burner or
combustor, and nozzle. It has two types: namely liquid- and solid-fuel ramjets.
Ramjet engines may be subsonic or supersonic (Fig. 1.65). Subsonic ramjets do not
need a sophisticated inlet since the airflow is already subsonic and a simple hole is
usually used. For supersonic ramjets, supersonic flow is decelerated to subsonic
speeds at the inlet through one or more oblique shock wave(s), terminated by a
strong normal shock.
Thus air attains subsonic speeds at the entrance of combustion chamber. The
combustor adds heat and mass to the compressed air by burning a fuel. The
combustion chamber includes flame holders that stop the flames from blowing
out. A ramjet combustor can safely operate at stoichiometric fuel to air ratios,
which implies a combustor exit stagnation temperature of the order of 2400 K for
kerosene. Products of combustion leaving the combustion chamber are
reaccelerated through a nozzle, to supersonic speeds via a convergent-divergent
nozzle to produce thrust. For a ramjet operating at a subsonic flight Mach number,
exhaust flow is accelerated through a converging nozzle. Supersonic ramjet engines
work most efficiently at speeds around Mach 3 and can operate up to speeds of at
least Mach 5.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Free Inlet Diffuser Fuel Combustor Nozzle
Stream πd τc πc

0 2 4 6
AIR INTAKE PROPELLING NOZZLE
FUEL SUPPLY

Lorin’s Ramjet (Subsonic) Supersonic Ramjet

Fig. 1.65 Lorin’s and supersonic ramjet engines

1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 65

Fig. 1.66 Leduc 010

Historically, ramjet was invented in 1913 by the French inventor René Lorin,
who was granted a patent for his device illustrated in Fig. 1.65. Attempts to build a
prototype failed due to inadequate materials [24]. However, in 1949, the works of
René Leduc led to design of Leduc 010, which was one of the first ramjet-powered
aircrafts that flew in 1949 and displayed in Fig. 1.66. Later on, the French Nord
1500 Griffon reached Mach 2.19 in 1958.
In 1915, the Hungarian inventor Albert Fon o devised a solution for increasing
the range of artillery, comprising a gun-launched projectile by adding a ramjet
propulsion unit. He submitted a German patent describing an “air-jet engine”
suitable for high-altitude supersonic aircraft. In an additional patent application,
he adapted the engine for subsonic speed. The patent was finally granted in 1932
after 4 years of examination.
In the Soviet Union, a theory of supersonic ramjet engines was presented in 1928
by Boris S. Stechkin. The first successful ramjet engine, namely, GIRD-04, was
designed by I.A. Merkulov and tested in April 1933. The GIRD-08 phosphorus-
fueled ramjet was tested by firing it from artillery cannon. These shells may have
been the first jet powered projectiles to break the speed of sound. In August 1939,
Merkulov developed the first ramjet engine for use as an auxiliary motor of DM-1
aircraft. The world’s first ramjet powered airplane flight took place in December
1939, using two DM-2 engines on a modified Polikarpov I-15. Merkulov designed a
ramjet fighter “Samolet D” in 1941. Two of his DM-4 engines were installed on the
YaK-7PVRD fighter, during World War II. In 1940, the Kostikov-302 experimental
plane was designed, powered by liquid fuel rocket for take-off and ramjet engines
for flight. In 1947, Mstislav Keldysh proposed a long-range antipodal bomber
powered by ramjet instead of rocket.

Pulsejet Engine
A pulse jet engine (or pulsejet) is a very simple type of jet engine in which
combustion occurs in pulses. Pulsejets use an intermittent combustion while ram-
jets employ a continuous combustion process. Pulsejet engines are a unique type of
jet engine, able to operate statically with few [25] or no moving parts [26]. They are
very simple and cheap to construct. They feature an excellent balance of cost and
66 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

function, as could run on any grade of petroleum and the ignition shutter system.
Their accompanying noise is unacceptable by modern standards. They have both a
higher efficiency and very high thrust-to-weight ratio compared to other jet engines.
Pulsejet engines may be produced in many sizes with different outputs ranging from
a few pounds to thousands of pounds of thrust. There are two main types of pulsejet
engines: valved (Fig. 1.67) and valveless (Fig. 1.68). Both types use resonant
combustion and harness the expanding combustion products to form a pulsating
exhaust jet, which produces thrust intermittently.

Valved
Valved engines use a mechanical one-way valve, which is a simple leaf-spring type
of shutter. With the valve open, a fresh charge of air is admitted. The air mixes with
the fuel and then an explosion takes place, which shuts the valve and forces the hot
gas to go out the back of the engine through the tailpipe only, and allow fresh air
and more fuel to enter through the intake (Fig. 1.67). The superheated exhaust gases
exit through an acoustically resonant exhaust pipe.

Fig. 1.67 Valved pulsejet operation, reproduced with the permission of Rolls-Royce plc, copy-
right © Rolls-Royce plc [28]
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 67

Fig. 1.68 Valveless pulsejet, Courtesy El-Sayed [1]

Valveless
Valveless pulsejets have no moving parts and use only their geometry to control the
flow of exhaust out of the engine (Fig. 1.68). Valveless engines expel exhaust out of
both the intakes and the exhaust, most try to have the majority of exhaust go out the
longer tail pipe, for more efficient propulsion. The valveless pulse jet engine
operates on the same principle as valved type. Combustion process creates two
shock wave fronts, one travelling down the upper long pipe (tube) and the other
down the short lower tube. By properly “tuning” of the system, a resonating
combustion process can be achieved, which yields considerable thrust. Fuel con-
sumption is very high and noise level is also unacceptable. The French engine
manufacturer SNECMA developed these pulsejets in late forties for use on drones.
One application was the Dutch AT-21 target drone built by Aviolanda Aircraft from
1954–1958 [27].
Historically, the first working pulsejet was patented in 1906 by Russian engineer
V.V. Karavodin, completing a working model in 1907. The French inventor
Georges Marconnet patented his valveless pulsejet engine in 1908. A German
designer and inventor Schmidt designed the V-1 flying bomb in 1933. The original
Schmidt design had the pulsejet placed in a fuselage like a modern jet fighter, unlike
the eventual V-1 which had the engine placed above the warhead and fuselage
(Fig. 1.69). Schmidt working for Argus Company, the pulsejet was modified and
identified as the Argus As 109-014. The first unpowered drop occurred at
Peenemünde on 28 October 1942 and the first powered flight occurred on
10 December 1942. Later on it was used in the bombing of London in 1944. Its
static thrust was 500 lbf (2200 N), while in flight thrust reached approximately
750 lbf (3300 N).
68 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.69 V1 buzz bomb

The high noise levels of pulsejets made them impractical for other than military
and other similarly restricted applications. They have been used to power experi-
mental helicopters, the engines being attached to the extreme ends of the rotor
blades. Pulsejets have the distinct advantage over conventional turbine engines of
not producing the usual reaction torque upon the fuselage.

Pulse Detonation Engine (PDE)

The pulse detonation engine (PDE) marks a new approach towards non-continuous
jet engines and promises higher fuel efficiency compared even to turbofan jet
engines, at least at very high speeds. Pratt & Whitney and General Electric now
have active PDE research programs. Most PDE research programs use pulsejet
engines for testing ideas early in the design phase.

Scramjet Engine
Scramjet is an evolution of the ramjets that are able to operate at much higher
speeds than ramjets or any other kind of airbreathing engines. It is an acronym for
Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, or in other words combustion of fuel and air occurs
in a supersonic flow relative to engine. Scramjets start working at speeds of at least
Mach 4 and have a theoretical maximum speed of Mach 17.
In the 1950s and 1960s, a variety of experimental scramjets engines were built
and ground tested in USA and the UK. In 1981, tests were made in Australia.
Presently, Brazil, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Russia, South Korea,
and Sweden have also hypersonic propulsion programs. No scramjet powered
vehicle has yet been produced outside an experimental program. Scramjet engines
find its applications in many recent hypersonic speed vehicles like rockets, future
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 69

Forebody
Shock boundary compression Aftbody
layer interactions expansion

Heat loss
Drag
Flow Thrust
M=4-15
Vehicle
bow-shock Isolator shock train
Fuel injection stages

Inlet Isolator Combustor Nozzle

Source: LaRC

Fig. 1.70 Scramjet engine

commercial transports in the twenty-first century as well as single stage to orbit

(SSTO) launchers.
It provides the most integrated engine–vehicle design for aircraft and missiles.
The engine occupies the entire lower surface of the vehicle body (Fig. 1.70). The
propulsion system consists of five major engine-components and two vehicle-
components: the internal inlet, isolator, combustor, internal nozzle, and fuel supply
subsystem, and the craft’s forebody, essential for air induction, and aft-body, which
is a critical part of the nozzle component.
Both hydrocarbon and hydrogen are used as fuels for scramjets. Scramjets are
mechanically simple but aerodynamically more complex than a jet engine. It uses
the speed of the aircraft to compress the air, so very few moving parts are needed to
operate it. The minimum functional speed, however, requires acceleration by other
jet engine to hypersonic speed before the scramjet can become active. Boeing or
NASA X-43 is an example for experimental scramjet with a world speed record for
a jet-powered aircraft – Mach 9.7, nearly 12,000 km/h (7000 mph) at an altitude
of about 36,000 m (110,000 ft). The X-43A set the flight speed record on
16 November 2004.
Moreover, Boeing X-51 (also known as X-51 WaveRider) is an unmanned
scramjet demonstration aircraft. It completed its first powered hypersonic flight
on 26 May 2010 for over 6 min and reached speeds of over Mach 5 for 210 s on 1st
May 2013 for the longest duration hypersonic flight.

Turbine Engine
Turbine engine category includes five types, namely, turbojet, turbofan, turbo-
ramjet, turbo-rocket, and advanced ducted fan engines.
70 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Turbojet
A turbojet is a type of gas turbine engine that was co-invented by Frank Whittle
(in UK) and von Ohain (in Germany) in the thirties. It is the simplest of all aircraft
gas turbines. It features one or more compressors to draw air in and compress it, a
combustion section which adds fuel and ignites it, one or more turbines that extract
power from the expanding exhaust gases to drive the compressor(s) and provide
power to aircraft systems, as well as an exhaust nozzle which accelerates the
exhaust out the back of the engine to create thrust. Each compressor is connected
by a shaft to a turbine.
The compressor is either of the axial or centrifugal type (Fig. 1.71). The first
turbojet engines of Frank Whittle and von Ohain were of the centrifugal compressor
type. All the turbines used are of the axial type. Axial compressors and the turbines
are composed of many blade rows: some are rotating called rotor and others are
stationary identified as stator. When turbojets were introduced, the top speed of
fighter aircraft equipped with them was at least 100 miles per hour faster than
competing piston-driven aircraft.
Many subsequent turbojet engines were designed and manufactured in Europe
by Rolls Royce, like Viber engine which powered MB339 and HAL HJT Kiran.
General Electric (GE) produced America’s first jet engine based on Whittle’s
design. It was GE-I-A where two of which powered the first United States first jet
aircraft, the Bell XP-59A in October 1942. In USA also, Pratt & Whitney designed
and produced its first gas turbine engine of its design, namely, J42 Turbo-Wasp
engine, which was delivered to the Navy in November 1948 for installation in the
Grumman F9F-2 Panther. In order for fighter planes to fly faster than sound
(supersonically), an afterburner is added to a core turbojet (Fig. 1.72). When the
afterburner is turned on, additional fuel is injected, which burns and produces
additional thrust. Thus additional thrust is gained but much more fuel is burnt.
When the afterburner is turned off, the engine performs like a basic turbojet.
Afterburners are only used on fighter planes and the supersonic airliner, Concorde.

Centrifugal impeller
Compressor Turbine Nozzle (compressor) Shaft Turbine

Combustion Shaft
Combustion Nozzle
chamber
chamber

Axial Compressor Centrifugal Compressor

Fig. 1.71 Turbojet engines
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 71

Fig. 1.72 Subsonic and supersonic turbojet engines

It was clear that below about Mach 2, turbojets are very fuel inefficient and
create tremendous amounts of noise. These drawbacks eventually led to the down-
fall of the pure turbojet, and only a handful of types are still in production. Thus,
turbojet engines were replaced by turbofan engines. The last airliner that used
turbojets was the Concorde, whose Mach-2 flight crossed the threshold into effi-
cient turbojet operation.
Examples for turbojet engines are General Electric GE J33 (powered the jet
fighter – the Lockheed P-80) and GE J35 (powered the first Boeing XB-47, the
Northrop YB-49A flying wing and the Douglas D-558-1). GE J47 turbojet engine
set a record of over 35,000 produced engines that powered various military aircrafts
in the mid 1950s. Moreover, one of the most famous turbojet engines is GE J79,
which enabled some US fighters to reach twice speed of sound. These include the
Convair B-58 “Hustler”, the Lockheed F-104 “Starfighter”, and the McDonnell F-4
“Phantom II”. Pratt & Whitney produced many turbojet engines like J48 (which
powered F9F-6 Cougar and Lockheed F-94C Starfire) and J57 which is a twin spool
(powered North American F-100 sabre, McDonnell F-101 Voodoo, and Lockheed
U-2 Air Force reconnaissance plane). A commercial version of J57 is the JT3 which
powered Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8. A distinguished turbojet engine was also
P&W J58 that was selected to power the Air Force SR-71 Blackbird surveillance/
reconnaissance aircraft. It may be concluded here that turbojet engine is outdated
now and seldom seen either in military or civil aircrafts.

Turbofan
Most modern airliners, troop, and cargo transports as well as military aircrafts use
turbofan engines because of their high thrust and good fuel efficiency. As with other
gas turbines, there is a core engine similar to a turbojet engine, which is surrounded
72 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

by a fan in the front (or rear for aft turbofan engines) and an additional turbine at the
rear. The fan and fan turbine are composed of many blade rows and are connected to
an additional shaft. As with the core compressor and turbine, some of the fan blades
turn with the shaft and some blades remain stationary. The fan shaft passes through
the core shaft for mechanical reasons. This type of arrangement is called a two spool
engine (one “spool” for the fan, one “spool” for the core). Some advanced engines
have additional spools for even higher efficiency. The incoming air is captured by
the engine inlet. Some of the incoming air passes through the fan and continues on
into the core compressor and then the burner, where it is mixed with fuel and
combustion occurs. The hot exhaust passes through the core and fan turbines and
then out the nozzle, as in a basic turbojet. The rest of the incoming air passes
through the fan and bypasses, or goes around the engine, just like the air through a
propeller. The air that goes through the fan has a velocity that is slightly increased
from free stream. So a turbofan gets some of its thrust from the core and some of its
thrust from the fan. The ratio of the air that goes around the engine to the air that
goes through the core is called the bypass ratio. Engines with bypass ratios of 1–2
are generally termed low bypass ratio turbofans. High bypass turbofans found on
most current transport aircraft, where bypass ratio is continuously increasing and
reached 10 or more in some turbofan engines. Figure 1.73 illustrates high and low
bypass ratio turbofan Engines
Because the fuel flow rate for the core is changed only a small amount by the
addition of the fan, a turbofan generates more thrust for nearly the same amount of
fuel used by the core. This means that a turbofan is very fuel efficient. In fact, high
bypass ratio turbofans are nearly as fuel efficient as turboprops. Since the fan is
enclosed by the inlet and is composed of many blades, it can operate efficiently at
higher speeds than a simple propeller. That is why turbofans are found on high
speed transports and propellers are used on low speed transports. Low bypass ratio
turbofans are still more fuel efficient than basic turbojets.
Many modern fighter planes actually use low bypass ratio turbofans equipped
with afterburners. They can then cruise efficiently but still have high thrust when

High-pressure High-pressure
Fan compressor turbine
High-pressure High-pressure
High-pressure Fan compressor turbine
shaft High-pressure
shaft

Low-pressure
shaft
Low-pressure Low-pressure Combustion Low-pressure Nozzle
shaft compressor chamber turbine
Low-pressure Combustion Low-pressure Nozzle
compressor chamber turbine

High Bypass Ratio Low Bypass Ratio

Fig. 1.73 High and low bypass ratio turbofan engines

1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 73

a
High Pressure Compressor
Combustor Afterburner Variable Nozzle
Fan

Low Pressure Turbine

High Pressure Turbine

Fig. 1.74 Low bypass ratio afterburning turbofan engines

dog fighting. Even though the fighter plane can fly much faster than the speed of
sound, the air going into the engine must travel less than the speed of sound for high
efficiency. Therefore, the airplane inlet slows the air down from supersonic speeds.
Figure 1.74 illustrates a layout (A) and a schematic diagram (B) for an afterburning
low bypass ratio turbofan engine.
A few examples for turbofan engines are listed in the following table arranged by
manufacturer’s products (Table 1.1).
Example 1.2 Write down the following data (sea level static thrust SLS, maximum
diameter, length, weight, bypass ratio, and application) for the following turbofan
engines: ALF502R-6, CFM56-2-C1, GE90-90B, Trent 1000-A1, V2500-A1,
RB211-524H, Tay 620, Trent 800, JT8D-217, PW2037, PW4098
Solution
The requested data is arranged in Table 1.2.
Figure 1.75 illustrates an aft fan turbofan engine. It is featured an integrated aft
fan/low pressure (LP) turbine unit located in a turbojet exhaust jet pipe. Hot gases
from the turbojet turbine exhaust expand through the LP turbine, the fan blades
being a radial extension of the turbine blades. The difference between aft fan
turbofan engine and propfan or unducted fan (UDF) is that aft fan is a/an ducted/
enclosed turbomachine (or surrounded by a casing), while propfan/UDF configu-
ration is not surrounded by any casing. One of the problems with the aft fan
configuration is hot gas leakage from the LP turbine to the fan.
74 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Table 1.1 Turbofan engines

Thrust range
Company Engine lbf Aircraft
Rolls-Royce FJ44 1900–2400 Saab SK-6
(RR)
RR RB211- 37,400–43,100 1. Tupolev Tu 204-120
535 2. Boeing 757-200, -300
RR Trent 75,000–95,000 Boeing 777-300, -200, -200ER
800
RR, MTU, Avio, EJ200 13,500 lbf Eurofighter Typhoon
ITP (Non-Reheated)
20,000 lbf
(Reheated)
GE F101 30,000 lbf thrust B-1
class
GE & SNECMA CFM56 22,000–24,000 LBF Super 70 DC-8, Boeing 737-300,-400 and
-500, Airbus a340
GE CF6-80 48,000–61,500 Boeing 767, 747-400, Airbus A300,A310,
A330, MD-11
GE GE90 76,000–115,540 Boeing 747, Boeing 777-300ER
GE GEnx 53,000–75,000 Boeing 747-8, Boeing 787-8, -9
Pratt & Whitney JT8D 14,000–17,400 Boeing 727, Boeing 737, DC-9, C-1
(P&W) Transport
P&W JT9D 45,800–53,000 Boeing 747, 767, Airbus A300, A310,
McDonnell Douglas DC-10
P&W F100 25,000 F-15, F-16
P&W PW2000 37,000–43,000 Boeing 757, Ilyushin Il-96 M, C-17
Globemaster III
P&W PW4000 52,000–99,040 lbf Airbus A300, A310, A330, Boeing
747-400, 767, 777, McDonnell Douglas
MD-11
P&W F119 35,000 lbf class F-22 Raptor
International V2500 23,500–28,000 Airbus A319, Airbus A320, MD-90-30
Aero Engines
IAE
General Electric, GP7000 76,500–81,500 lbf Airbus A380
Pratt & Whitney

An example for aft-turbofan engine is a modified version of the turbojet engine

CJ805, which powered the Convair CV- 990 aircraft.

Turbo Ramjet Engine

Turbo ramjet is a combination engine that can operate as a turbojet or ramjet
engine. It is a type of jet engine intended for high speed flight. The turbo ramjet
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 75

Table 1.2 Some basic data for high bypass ratio turbofan engines
SLS Thrust Max Weight
Engine (lb) Dia. Length (lb) BPR Applications
ALF502R-6 7500 50 65.6 1375 5.6 BAE-146
CFM56-2-C1 22,200 72 95.7 4635 6 A340
GE90-90B 90,000 134 204 16,644 9 B777-200/300
Trent 1000- 63,800 112 153 11,924 10 B787-8
A1
V2500-A1 25,000 67.5 126 5210 5.4 A319-321
RB211-524H 60,600 86.3 125 9499 4.1 747-400/767-300
Tay 620 13,850 60 102 3185 3.04 Fokker 70/100
Trent 800 92,000 110 172 14,400 6.5 777
JT8D-217 20,850 56.3 154 4430 1.74 MD-80
PW2037 38,250 84.8 146.8 7160 5.8 757, C-17
PW4098 98,000 112 191.7 16,165 5.8 777

Fig. 1.75 Aft fan turbofan engine

engine (Fig. 1.76) combines the turbojet engine for speeds up to Mach 3 with the
ramjet engine, which has good performance at high Mach numbers [28].
The engine is surrounded by a duct that has a variable intake at the front and an
afterburning jet pipe with a variable nozzle at the rear. During takeoff and accel-
eration, the engine functions as a conventional turbojet with the afterburner lit while
at other flight conditions up to Mach 3, the afterburner is inoperative. As the aircraft
accelerates through Mach 3, the turbojet is shut down and the intake air is diverted
from the compressor, by guide vanes, and ducted straight into the afterburning jet
pipe, which becomes a ramjet combustion chamber. This engine is suitable for an
76 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.76 Turbo ramjet engine, reproduced with the permission of Rolls-Royce plc, copyright
© Rolls-Royce plc

aircraft requiring high speed and sustained high Mach number cruise conditions
where the engine operates in the ram jet mode.
Figure 1.77 shows Pratt & Whitney J58 engines powering the SR-71 aircrafts.
P&W J58 is an example for turbo-ramjet engine [29]. It could be converted during
flight from being largely a turbojet to being largely a compressor-assisted ramjet. At
high speeds (above Mach 2.4), the engine used variable geometry vanes to direct
excess air through six bypass pipes from downstream of the fourth compressor stage
into the afterburner. Thus, 80 % of the SR-71’s thrust at high speed was generated in
this way, giving much higher thrust, improving specific impulse by 10–15 %, and
permitting continuous operation at Mach 3.2.

Turborocket Engine
The turborocket (or air turborocket) engine (Fig. 1.78) is a type of airbreathing
engine combining elements of a jet engine and a rocket, which is also known by its
acronym as the ATR. The ATR belongs to a general class of propulsion engines
known as Turbine-Based Combined-Cycle, or TBCC, engines. It could be consid-
ered as an alternative engine to the turbo ramjet. However, it has one major
difference in that it carries its own oxygen to provide combustion at high speed
[28]. The engine has a low pressure compressor driven by a multi-stage turbine; the
power to drive the turbine is derived from combustion of kerosene and liquid
oxygen in a rocket-type combustion chamber. Since the gas temperature will be
in the order of 3500
C, additional fuel is sprayed into the combustion chamber for
cooling purposes before the gas enters the turbine. This fuel-rich mixture (gas) is
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 77

Fig. 1.77 Pratt & Whitney J58 Turbo ramjet Engine (upper) powering SR-71 aircraft (lower)

then diluted with air from the compressor and the surplus fuel burnt in a conven-
tional afterburning system. It is finally exhausting through a convergent-divergent
propelling nozzle. In some ATRs, the hot gas can be produced by burning of a solid
propellant.
Although the engine is smaller and lighter than the turbo ramjet, it has higher
fuel consumption. This tends to make it more suitable for an interceptor or space-
launcher type of aircraft that requires high speed and high altitude performance and
normally has a flight plan that is entirely accelerative and of short duration.
78 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.78 Turborocket engine, reproduced with the permission of Rolls-Royce plc, copyright
© Rolls-Royce plc

Advanced Ducted Fan

Advanced ducted fan are essentially turbofans with large swept fan blades that have
pith control and reduction gearing similar to propfans, but the fans are enclosed in
ducts like turbofan engines [1]. Bypass ratio for advanced ducted fan is from 15:1 to
25:1 [30]. There are two basic types: one with geared, variable pitch, single
propeller fan, and the other with counter-rotating blades. Extensive work has
been done in some aero engine manufacturing companies like Pratt & Whitney,
MTU, and Fiat Avio for the design of this type of engines. A thin-lip, slim-line
nacelled is required to give such a high bypass ratio.

1.3.3 Other Power Sources

This third and last group of aircraft engines (identified as others) is subdivided into
human- and electric-powered engines.

1.3.3.1 Electric-Powered Aircraft

An electric aircraft is an aircraft that runs on electric motors rather than internal
combustion engines, with electricity coming from fuel cells, solar cells, ultra
capacitors, power beaming, and/or batteries. The advantages of electric aircraft
include increased safety due to decreased chance of mechanical failure, such as
from volcanic ash, less risk of explosion or fire in the event of a collision, less noise,
and no emissions and pollution. The main disadvantage of electric aircraft is
decreased range. The range can be increased by adding solar cells to the aircraft’s
body to create a solar airplane. However, the plane’s surface area must be large
compared to its weight to have a significant impact on range. Electric powered
model aircraft have been flown since the 1970s including manned and unmanned
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 79

aerial vehicles. About 60 electrically powered aircrafts have been designed since
the 1960s, some are used as military drones..
The 27 lb (12 kg) unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise was the world’s first solar-
powered flight flew on 4 November 1974. The improved Sunrise II flew on
27 September 1975 at Nellis AFB.
The world’s first official flight in a manned solar-powered aircraft took place on
29 April 1979 [30]. The aircraft used photovoltaic cells that produced 350 W at
30 V.
The aircraft was capable of powering the motor for 3–5 min, following a 1.5 h
charge, enabling it to reach a gliding altitude. The Solar Challenger set an altitude
record of 14,300 f. on 7 July 1981 and flew 163 miles from Cormeilles-en-Vexin
Airport near Paris across the English Channel to RAF Manston near London. The
German Solair 1 employed 2500 wing-mounted solar cells giving an output of
2.2 kW (3 hp) with an aircraft weight of 180 kg (397 lb). The aircraft first flew was
on 21 August 1983, while the first flight of Solair II took place 2 years later in Mai
1998 [31].
NASA Pathfinder (Fig. 1.79) and Helios were a series of solar and fuel cell
system-powered unmanned aircraft.
In 1990, the solar powered airplane Sunseeker successfully flew across the USA.
It used a small battery charged by solar cells on the wing to drive a propeller for
takeoff, and then flew on direct solar power and took advantage of soaring condi-
tions when possible.
The Sunseeker II, built in 2002, was updated in 2005–2006 with a more powerful
motor, larger wing, lithium battery packs, and updated control electronics. As of
December 2008, it was the only manned solar-powered airplane in flying condition
and is operated regularly by Solar Flight (Fig. 1.80). In 2009, it became the first
solar-powered aircraft to cross the Alps.
China’s first solar-powered aircraft “Soaring” was designed and built in 1992.
The body and wings are hand-built predominantly of carbon fiber, Kevlar,
and wood.

Fig. 1.79 NASA Pathfinder

80 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.80 Sunseeker II solar airplane

Solar Impulse prototype had its first short-hop (350 m) test flight on 3 December
2009 (Fig. 1.81). In its present configuration, it has a wingspan of 64 m, weighs
1588 k,g and powered by four 10-horsepower (7 kW) electric motors each turning a
propeller. Solar Impulse will capture sunlight using 12,000 photovoltaic cells on its
wings and horizontal stabilizer. Power from the solar cells is stored in lithium
polymer batteries and used to drive 3.5-m (11 ft) propellers turning at speed of
200–400 rpm. Take-off speed is 19 knots (35 km/h) and cruising speed is 60 knots
(111 km/h). The aircraft had its first high flight on 7 April 2010, when it flew to an
altitude of 1200 m (3937 ft) in a 1.5 h flight on battery power alone. In July 2010,
Solar impulse’s HB-SIA prototype airplane made its first successful night flight
attempt at Payerne airport. The aircraft took off July 7 at 06:51 am and reached an
altitude of 8700 m (28,543 ft) by the end of the day. It then slowly descent to 1500
m (4921 ft) and flew during the night on the batteries, charged during the day by
12,000 solar cells, which powered the four electric motors. It landed July 8 at
09.00 am (GMT 2) for a flight time of 26 h 9 min setting the longest and highest
flight ever made by a solar plane. Later on, it completed successful solar-powered
flights from Switzerland to Spain and then Morocco in 2012, and conducted a multi-
stage flight across the United States in 2013.
In 2014, Solar Impulse 2 was manufactured with more solar cells and powerful
motors. In March 2015, it began an attempt to circumnavigate the globe with Solar
Impulse 2, departing from Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates. By 1 June 2015,
the plane had traversed Asia. On 3 July 2015, the plane completed the longest leg of
its journey, from Japan to Hawaii, but the aircraft’s batteries experienced thermal
damage that is expected to take months to repair.
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 81

Fig. 1.81 Solar Impulse airplane

1.3.3.2 Human-Powered Aircraft (HPA)

A human-powered aircraft (HPA) is an aircraft capable of sustained, controlled

flight by human power alone through an act of pedaling, which activates a mech-
anism for turning a propeller for thrust (Fig. 1.82). HPA inevitably experience assist
from thermals or rising air currents. Pure HPA do not use hybrid flows of energy
(solar energy, wound rubber band, fuel cell, etc.) for thrust. The first recorded
successful HPA flight happened in 1936 through the “Pedaliante”, an aircraft built
and designed in Italy. As of 2008, human-powered aircraft have been successfully
flown over considerable distances. However, they are primarily constructed as an
engineering challenge rather than for any kind of recreational or utilitarian purpose.

1.3.3.2.1 Closure

It is evident from this chapter how mankind’s life is now increasingly dependent on
aircrafts. In both civil and war, airplanes have its essential role. Detailed description
of commercial jetliners, helicopters, and defense systems are given. Thus fixed and
rotary wing aircrafts utilized in both civil and military fields are fully classified.
82 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

Fig. 1.82 Human-powered airplane

Civilian fixed wing aircrafts are employed both in passengers and freight transpor-
tation, search and rescue, agricultural, research, fire fighting, and training activities.
Fixed wing military aircrafts display itself in battle fields as fighter, ground attack,
bombers, and rescue, while transport, search and rescue, training as well as
firefighting. Reconnaissance and refueling aircrafts fly between conflict areas and
air force bases. Rotary wing aircrafts are also extensively seen both in civil and
military disciplines. It has the capability to take off/land in unpaved areas. Tourism,
search and rescue, firefighting, and police works are some of its civilian activities.
Transport, fighting, bombing, and rescue are some important military applications.
Moreover, various propulsion systems are thoroughly described. Both shaft and
reaction engines are classified. Internal combustion engines are one class of shaft
engines that has three main groups, namely: Wankel, piston, and turbine types.
Turbine group is again subdivided into turboprop, turboshaft, and propfan engines.
Other shaft engines are either solar- or human-powered type. Reaction engines are
the most dominant power plants including ramjet, pulsejet, turbojet, turbofan, turbo
ramjet, and turbo rocket engines. Turbofan engines are the mostly employed
airbreathing engines in both civil and military fixed wing applications. Turboshaft
engines are the present unique power plants used in helicopters. Turboprop engines
power most of the heavy transport civil and military aircrafts.
Detailed analyses for all of the above power plants will be given in this book. It is
categorized as ram-based engines, turbine-based engines and shaft-based engines.
A complete chapter is devoted for each group.
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 83

Problems
1.1 Complete the following table for aircraft classifications:
Mono-plane Mono-plane Bi-plane Bi-plane Tri-plane Tri-plane Tri-plane
Aircraft transport military transport military transport military military
Aircraft
type
Aero
engine
Example

1.2 Complete the following table for aircraft classifications:

Blended wing body Hybrid wing body
Aircraft (BWB) (HWB) Sea Amphibian STOL VTOL V/STOL
Aircraft
type
Aero
engine
Example

1.3 Complete the following table for aircraft classifications based on its utility:
Civilian
Civilian search and Civilian Civilian Single engine
Aircraft STOVL Agricultural trainer rescue firefighting experimental private transport
Aircraft
type
Aero
engine
Example

1.4 Complete the following table for civil transport aircrafts:

Twin engine private Executive jet Short Medium Long
Aircraft transport (corporate) Commuter Regional haul haul haul
Aircraft
type
Aero
engine
Example

1.5 Complete the following table:

Tactics Strategic Fighter Ground Maritime Enhanced
Aircraft bomber bomber bomber attack patrol Interceptor TOL
Aircraft
type
Aero
engine
Example
84 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

1.6 Complete the following table for non-combat military aircrafts:

Military Tanker Military Military Military
Aircraft transport (refueling) trainer experimental fire-fighting AWACS Reconnaissance
Aircraft type
Aero engine
Example

1.7 Complete the following table for fixed/rotary wing aircrafts:

Military Military NOTAR Tip jet Ducted fan Tail rotor Tandem
Aircraft UAV glider helicopter helicopter helicopter helicopter helicopter
Aircraft type
Aero-engine
Example

1.8 Complete the following table for rotorcrafts:

Coaxial Inter-meshing Transverse Transport Training
Aircraft helicopter helicopter helicopter Gyrodynes Autogyros helicopter helicopter
Aircraft type
Aero-engine
Example

1.9 Complete the following table for helicopters

Construction Inter- Search and Remote MEDEVAC
(aerial meshing rescue sensing Firefighting air Sea
Aircraft cranes) helicopter helicopter helicopter (helitack) ambulance helicopter
Aircraft type
Aero engine
Example

1.10 Complete the following table for helicopters:

Multi-mission Tactics and
Attack Trainer Transport Experimental and rescue Maritime operation
Aircraft helicopter helicopter helicopter helicopter helicopter helicopter helicopter
Aero engine
Example

1.11 Complete the following table:

Observation UAV Mono Mono-tilt-rotor
Aircraft helicopter helicopter Tiltrotor Coleopter Tiltwing tiltrotor rotary-ring
Aero engine
Example
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 85

1.12 Classify the following aircrafts giving the name of a possible installed power
plant:
Airbus A300, Antonov An 2 M, AVRO Vulcan B-2, B-52, B 767, B737,
B777, BAE 146 Model Series 200, BEECH STARSHIP I, Beriev Be-42,
C-17, C-130, Cessna Model 402 C, Dassault Breguet Alpha Jet CH
53, DC-3, DC-10, DeHavilland Canada Dash-8, Embraer EMB-120, Embraer
EMB-312 Tucano, F15, F35, Fokker F-27 Friendship MK 200, Gates
LEARJET 35A, Lockheed Jetstar, McDonnell Douglas MD-80, Mig-29,
Mirag-2000, Prion P-3, Piper Tomahawk II, Saab 340, SIAI Marchetti
S-211, SR-71, Su-27, U-2, X-15
1.13 Classify the shown aircrafts
86 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

1.14 Mark right or wrong, then correct wrong statement(s):

• The world’s first certified commercial transport helicopter was S-55 Chick-
asaw (H-19) ()
• The world’s first turbine gas-powered engine was Kaman K-225 ()
• MD 902 is one of the highest cruise speed helicopter; 258 km/h ()
• Dhruv helicopter records one of the highest ceiling namely 27,500 ft ()
• PZL SW-4 helicopter has one of the largest ranges namely 990 km ()
• Eurocopter AS 532 is a military transport having a capacity of 20 troops ()
• Agusta AZ 101 G being one of the largest capacity transport helicopters
has a capacity of 45 passengers ()
• Small helicopter-type unmanned aerial vehicles use electric motors as
power sources ()
1.15 The shown figure illustrates a model for the engine-powered Wright Brothers
flyer.
Write down its type and specifications

1.16 Classify the following engines giving the name of a possible powered aircraft:
CF6-50C, CF34-GE-400A, CFM56-3C, F100-PW-100, F101-GE-102,
F135, F404-GE-400,
J57-P-10, J60-P-3, J75-P-13B, JT8D-17, JT9D-7 F, Pegasus 11-21, PT6
Twin Pac, PW100, PW2040, PW4090, RB211-524H, RB211-TRENT
768, R-985 WASP JR, R-1340, Spey 506-14 W, Tay 650, TF30-P-6, TF33-
PW-102, V2500-A1
1.3 Classifications of Propulsion Systems 87

1.17 Identify the type of the shown engine, giving three examples for engines and
the installed aircrafts

1.18 Give a detailed description of the shown Helios aircraft

1.19 The shown figure illustrates

Kuznetsov NK-12 M Turboprop, powering
Tu-95 aircraft. Give details of the engine; number of shafts, power, propel-
ler type, possible installations to other aircrafts.
88 1 Classifications of Aircrafts and Propulsion Systems

1.20 Compare between the following propfan engines:

• Pratt & Whitney/Allison 578-DX
• General Electric GE36
• Ivchenko-Progress D-27
1.21 Complete the missing data in the following table:

Engine SLS Thrust Max Length Weight BPR Applications

(lbs) diameter (in) (lbs)
TFE731-2 3500 39.4 51 725 2.67 ??
TFE731-20 3650 39.4 51 885 ?? ??
BR710 20,000 52.9 87 3520 ?? ??
AE3007 7580 43.5 106.5 1581 ?? ??
FJ44-1 1900 20.9 41.9 445 ?? ??
FJ44-2 2300 23.7 40.2 448 3.28 ??
JT3-D-7 19,000 52.9 134.4 4300 ?? ??
JT8D-11 15,000 43 120 3310 ?? ??
JT9D-3A 43,500 95.6 128.2 8608 ?? ??
GE4 69,000 90 296.04 13,243 ?? B2707 SST design
Mach 2.7
GE21J11B14 65,000 74.16 282 ?? ?? SCAR study Mach
2.6
Olympus 593 38,000 49 150 6780 ?? Concorde
TBE-M1.6 70,600 ?? ?? 9252 ?? NASA Mach 1.6
study
(continued)
References 89

TBE-M2.0 69,000 ?? ?? 9278 ?? NASA Mach 2.0

study
TBE-2.4 65,500 ?? ?? 9587 ?? NASA Mach 2.4
study
Rolls VCE 49,460 ?? ?? ?? ?? HSCT design study
Rolls 49,460 ?? ?? ?? ?? HSCT design study
Tandem

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