EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

UNIT- I
BASICS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS:
1. Why is collector resistance replaced by a constant current source in differential amplifier?
(Dec’19)Mention two advantages of active load over passive load in an op-amp. (Dec’15) Why are
active loads preferred than passive load in the input stage of an op-amp? (Dec’10)
• The difference mode gain and CMRR is directly proportional to the 𝑅𝐶 in differential amplifier. To
apply large resistance 𝑅𝐶 to achieve high CMRR.
• But use of large resistance value 𝑅𝐶 , occupies large chip area, and it needs large power supply. So, the
passive load 𝑅𝐶 replaced by the current mirror as active load.
• Hence current mirror used as active load , for an amplifier , it has two advantages.
➢ Dynamic resistance (ac) is very high.
➢ Very large voltage gain.
2. Why is the current mirror circuit used in differential amplifier stages? (May’17)
The current mirror-is used to provide bias current independent of any other external parameters to an
internal differential amplifier stage of op-amp and it also acts as active loads to differential amplifier to
provide large CMRR.
3. Mention the application of LF155.(May’19)
• Precision high-speed integrators
• Fast D/A and A/D Converters
• High impedance buffers
• Wideband, Low Noise, Low Drift Amplifiers
• Logarithmic amplifiers
• Photocell amplifiers
4. State the significance of current mirror circuit.(May’19)What is a current mirror? What are its
advantages?(May’10, Dec’08)
A current mirror is a circuit, to produce an output current of one active device is equal to the input current of
another active device inspite of loading. The output current is mirror replica of original input current.
Advantages:
• Constant current regardless of loading.
• Current source act as an active load in differential amplifier
5. Define differential mode gain.(Dec’18)
• The difference between the two inputs (𝑉1 − 𝑉2 ) is generally called difference voltage and denoted as 𝑉𝑑
𝑉𝑂 = Ad 𝑉𝑑 … …(3)
𝑉𝑂
• Hence the differential gain can be expressed as, Ad = 𝑉𝑑
6. Differentiate the ideal and practical characteristics of an op-amp.(May’16) (May’17)Mention the
characteristics of an ideal OP-Amp. (May’09, Dec’10) State the ideal characteristics of an operational
amplifier. What are the characteristics of an ideal operational amplifier? (Dec’19) (List the ideal
characteristics of Op-Amp.)(Dec’18) ( May’17)(May’09)(Dec’10))
S.No Ideal characteristics Practical characteristics
1 Open loop voltage gain (𝐴𝑂𝐿 = ∞) Open loop voltage gain = several thousands
2 Input impedance (𝑅𝑖 = ∞) Input impedance (𝑅𝑖 ) greater than 1 MΩ
3 Output resistance (𝑅𝑜 = 0) Output impedance (𝑅𝑜 ) few hundred ohms
4 Band width (BW=∞) Bandwidth (BW) very small
5 Zero offset 𝑉𝑜 = 0, when (𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 0) Offset voltage some non-zero value

1
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
7. Enumerate any two blocks associated with Op-Amp block schematic.(May’18)Draw the Block
Diagram of a General Op-Amp) (Dec’16)

• The first two stages are cascaded differential amplifier used to provide high gain and high input
resistance.
• This stage amplifies the difference between two inputs applied.
• The third stage is buffer and lever shifter stage.
• Buffer provides high input impedance and low output impedance and level shifter adjusts the dc voltage
level, so that output is zero when input is zero.
8. What are the two methods can be used to produce voltage sources? (May’18)
• Impedance transformation type
• Common collector (or) Emitter follower type
• Temperature compensated avalanche diode type and
• 𝑉𝐵𝐸 reference type.
9. Draw the dc transistor characteristics of a BJT differential amplifier and define differential mode
input voltages. (Dec’17)
• DC Transfer characteristics of BJT Differential Amplifier

• When two different voltages are applied to bases of 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 then the differential amplifier operates in
differential mode.
• The two voltages applied are called as differential mode input voltages with𝑉𝑖𝑛1 ≠ 𝑉𝑖𝑛2.
10. Define slew rate. What causes the slew rate?(Dec’11,Dec’10,May’08,May’14, May’15)
• Slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage caused by step input voltage.
• Slew rate is usually specified in V/µs.
𝒅𝒗𝒄 𝑰
=
𝒅𝒕 𝑪
𝟐𝛑 𝒇𝑽𝒎
𝐒𝐥𝐞𝐰 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 = 𝟏𝟎𝟔 V/µs
Causes of slew rate :
• There is usually a capacitor within or outside an op-amp to prevent oscillation.
• It is this capacitor which prevents the output voltage from responding immediately to a fast changing
input.
11. Define CMRR.(What is the CMRR of IC741?)(Dec’10,May’11,Dec’09, May’13)
• Common Mode Rejection ratio is defined as the ratio of the differential voltage gain Ad to common
𝐀
mode voltage gain AC . 𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 = 𝝆 = |𝐀𝐝 |
𝐂
2
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
12. What are the two requirements to be met for a good current source?(May’12)(What is the need for
constant current source in differential amplifier? (May’11)
• The output current 𝐼𝑂 should not be dependent upon 𝛽.
• Output resistance of the current source should be very high.
13. Define the term input bias current and input offset voltage of an op-amp. (May’09,Dec'13 ,Dec’15)
Define offset voltage of an operational amplifier.(Dec’13,Dec’11,Dec’09)
Input Bias Current:
• The average of Base currents that entered into inverting and non-inverting input terminals,
𝐈𝐁+ + 𝐈𝐁−
𝐈𝐁 =
𝟐
Input Offset Voltage:
• The input signal 𝑉1and 𝑉2 of both terminals of an op - amp is zero, the output is zero for ideal op -amp.
but practically, some voltage at the output.
• A small voltage in terms of millivolts applied to anyone terminal of an op-amp to make output is zero,
another terminal is grounded. This voltage is called input offset voltage.
𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝑶 = (𝟏 + )𝑽
𝑹𝟏 𝒊𝒐𝒔
14. Draw the Circuit Diagram of a Symmetrical Emitter Coupled Differential Amplifier (Dec’16)

15. What is the need for frequency compensation in practical op-amps? (May’11)
The gain of the op-amp becomes unstable at higher frequencies. To avoid this frequency compensation
techniques is need in op-amp circuits.
Two types of frequency compensation techniques are.
(i) External frequency compensation
(ii) Internal frequency compensation
16. Define unity gain bandwidth of an OP-Amp. (May’08)
At a certain frequency, the open loop gain reduces to 0 dB. This indicates that 20 log |A OL (f) | is 0 dB i.e
|AOL (f) | = 1. Such a frequency at which magnitude of the open loop gin is unity is called gain cross over
frequency or unity gain bandwidth (UGB). It is also called closed loop bandwidth. For IC 742 UGB is about
1MHz.
17. What is an integrated circuit? (May’10)
• An IC is a miniature, low cost electronic circuit consisting of active and passive components that are
irreparably joined together on a single crystal chip of silicon.

3
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
18. State the advantages of integrated circuits over discrete components. (Dec'13,Dec’14)
• Miniaturization.
• Matched Devices.
• Increased system reliability (due to elimination of soldered joints).
• Improved functional performance (more complex circuits can be fabricated).
19. Why frequency compensation required in operational amplifier?( Dec’10)
• To avoid instability at higher frequencies
• To reduce the closed loop gain
• To achieve higher Bandwidth
20. Draw the circuit diagram of non-inverting amplifier. (May’08)

𝑣0 𝑅
𝐴𝐶𝐿 = = 1 + 𝑅𝑓
𝑣𝑖 1
21. Compare the inverting and non-inverting amplifier.(Dec’10)
S.No. Inverting amplifier Non inverting amplifier
1 Input is applied inverting terminal of an Input is applied non-inverting input terminal of an
op-amp. op-amp.
2. Closed loop gain Closed loop gain
𝑣0 𝑅𝑓 𝑣0 𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =− 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =1+
𝑣𝑖 𝑅1 𝑣𝑖 𝑅1
22. Define current mirror with magnification.(Nov’11)
• Widlar current source is also called current mirror with magnification.
• In widlar current source output current is not equal to input current and it is small part of input current,
widlar current source is also called lens circuit.
• Proper choosing of 𝑅𝐸 determine the output current 𝐼𝐶2 which is part of reference current 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 .
𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐶1
𝑅𝐸 = 1
ln ( )
(1 + ) 𝐼 𝐼𝐶2
𝛽 𝐶2

23. Draw the schematic symbol of op-amp and list the different terminals and their functions. (Dec’10)
op - amp symbol:

Pin 2 → inverting input;Pin 3 → Non - inverting input ; Pin 4 → -ve supply;Pin 7 → +ve supply ;Pin 6 →
output
24. What are the requirements of input stage of op-amp?(May’10)
➢ It provides larger input impedance.
➢ Should provide high gain.
➢ CMRR should be large.
➢ Respond both AC and DC inputs.
4
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
25. Draw the neat sketch the frequency response of 𝝁𝑨𝟕𝟒𝟏 op-amp.(Dec’04)

UNIT-II
APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
PART A:
1. Why the output of comparator circuit is always ±𝑽𝒔𝒂𝒕 ? (May’22)
• In comparator, op-amp is used in open loop mode.
• Open loop gain of op-amp is very high.
• Hence for very small input voltage, op-amp output voltage in open loop mode is very high.
• But due to saturating property of op-amp, it cannot produce the output more than ±𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 which is its
saturation voltage level.
• Hence, the output of comparator circuit is always ±𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 .
2. What are the disadvantages of basic operational amplifier differentiator(Dec’19)
• At f = fa, |A| = 1, i.e., 0 dB and the gain increase at a rate of + 20 dB / decade. Thus at high frequency,
a differentiator may become unstable and break into oscillation.
• The input impedance (i.e, 1/ωC1 ) decreases with increase in frequency, thereby making the circuit
sensitive to high frequency noise.
3. Audio filters are usually Butterworth filter. Justify. (Dec’19)
• If α is reduced too much, the filter may become oscillatory.

• The flattest pass band occurs for damping coefficient of 1.414. This is called a Butterworth filter. So
audio filters are usually Butterworth.
• However, Butterworth filters are used as digital filters in motion analysis and also in audio circuits.
4. How does a zero crossing detector work? (May’19)
• The basic comparators can be used as a zero crossing detector provided that 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 is set to zero.
• An inverting zero-crossing detector is shown in Fig 2.9.3(a) and the output waveform for a sinusoidal
input signal is shown in Fig2.9.3 (b). The circuit is also called a sine to square wave generator.

5
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Fig 2.9.3 (a) Zero crossing detector (b) Input and output waveforms.
5. How does operational amplifier work as an integrator?(Dec’18)

• As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs the
mathematical operation of Integration.
• The circuit, that provides an output voltage which is proportional to the time integral of the input and
R1 CF is the time constant of the integrator.
6. Draw the circuit of clipper using op-amp.(Dec’18)
Positive Clipper:

Negative Clipper:

7. What is the function of a phase shift circuit? (May’18)

• The function of phase shift circuit is to provide phase shift to the input signal according to the frequency
of input signal.
• Phase of output signal can be made to lag or lead the input signal depending on input signal frequency.
8. Write the other name for clipper circuit. (May’18)
• The other name of clipper circuit is amplitude limiter.
9. State the limitations of an ideal integrator. (Dec’17)
(i) If𝑓 = 0, gain 𝐴 = ∞ because at DC (𝑓 = 0), 𝐶𝑓 open circuited and there is nonegative feedback to
reduce gain.
• If gain is infinite, the op-amp saturates.

6
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
1
(ii) If𝑓 = 𝑓𝑏 (where𝑓𝑏 is some high frequency, 𝑓𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑅 )capacitivereactance in feedback equals the
1 𝐶𝑓
𝑅𝑓 𝑋𝐶𝑓
input resistance leading to unity gain (0dB) .[∵ = = 1 for an inverting configuration].
𝑅1 𝑅1
(iii) As frequency increases, the gain of integrator rolls-off at a rate of -20 dB/ decade or - 6 dB / octave. So
1
the stability is affected. The frequency at which 0dB attained is𝑓𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑅 (putting |A|= 1 in (5))
1 𝐶𝑓

(iv)Also the input offset voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑜 and the part of input current chargingcapacitor 𝐶𝑓 produces error voltage
at output even in the absence of input voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
(v) Because of all the limitations, a true integration of input signal is not possible with ideal integrator.
10. How will you realize a peak detector using a precision rectifier? (Dec’17)
• The circuit which stores the highest value (Peak) of the given input signal is called a peak detector.
• This is achieved by charging a capacitor to peak voltage level.
• A simple peak detector can be constructed by the use of diode, capacitor and a buffer.
11. What is the need for converting a first order filter into a second order filter? (May’17)
• The need for converting a first order filter to second order filter is to obtain a better stop band
characteristics.
• The first order filter provides a roll-off rate of ± 20 dB/decade whereas, the second order filters provides
a roll-off rate of ± 40 dB/decade.
• It is well known fact that higher the order of the filter, better the characteristics of the filter.
12. How is the current characteristic of a PN junction employed in a Log amplifier? (May’17)
• In a log amplifier, a base grounded NPN transistor is connected between input and output terminal of op-
amp in the feedback path.
• Because of grounded base, the current relationship is similar to a diode current relationship given as
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝑂 (𝑒 𝑞𝑉𝐸 ⁄𝑉𝑇 − 1)
• Here emitter current of transistor 𝐼𝐸 is diode current equivalently.
13. Draw the circuit diagram of a comparator. Mention its applications.(May’16)( State any four
applications of comparator.(2011 Dec)Give any four applications of a comparator.(2008 May))

Applications:
1. Zero crossing detector 2. Window detector 4. Phase meter
3. Time marker generator
14. What is hysteresis and mention the purpose of hysteresis in a comparator? (May’15)
• The practical comparator circuits, may not be possible to maintain loop gain exactly equal to unity for a
long time, because of supply voltage and temperature variations. So the output waveform virtually
discontinuous at the comparison voltage.
• The hysteresis nothing but output changes it's state, it remains there indefinitely until the input voltage
crossed any of the threshold voltage levels. This is called hysteresis of Schmitt trigger.

7
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
15. Give an application of each of the following circuits: Voltage follower, peak detector, Schmitt
trigger and clamper.(Dec'13)
Voltage follower = Sample and Hold Circuit
Peak detector = Test equipment
Schmitt trigger = It can be used to eliminate comparator chatter in signal shaping and in ON/OFF control . It
is a building block of relaxation oscillator.
Clamper = Peak of the signal is shifted to some reference level (television) receivers as dc restorer.
16. Why integrators are preferred over differentiators in analog computers?(2009 May)
• An analog computer can perform linear operations such as multiplication,
• Addition, subtraction, and integration. Linear differential amplifiers is sufficient to solve these
operations. But gain of the differentiator increases linearly with log times, noise and drift resulting in
false oscillations.
• Therefore integrators preferred over differentiators in analog computers.
17. Draw the circuit diagram of an op-amp differentiator circuit. (2012 Dec)(Draw the circuit diagram
of differentiator and give its output equation.(2010 May)Draw the schematic of a differentiator. Give
its output equation.(2009 Dec))

𝒅𝒗𝒊
𝒗𝒐 = −𝑹𝑭 𝑪𝟏
𝒅𝒕
18. What is comparator?(2012 May)
• Comparator is a circuit which compares, the un known signal voltage is applied to one input of an op-
amp, with known reference voltage is applied to another input of an op-amp.
➢ When the differential voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑑 is positive output is +𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 .
➢ When the differential voltage 𝑉𝑖𝑑 is negative output is −𝑉𝑠𝑎𝑡 .
19. Draw and write equation of an integrator using an op-amp. (2010Dec).Draw the circuit of an
integrator. (2008 Dec).Draw the circuit diagram of op-amp integrator.

𝟏 𝒕
𝒗𝟎 (𝒕) = − ∫ 𝒗 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕 + 𝒗𝒐 (𝟎)
𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝑭 𝟎 𝒊
20. State the difference between conventional(normal rectifier) and precision rectifier. (2014
Dec).How does precision rectifier differs from the conventional rectifier?(2012 Dec)What are the
advantages of precision rectifier over ordinary rectifier?(2011May)What is a precision rectifier?(2009
Dec) (May’15)
S.No Coventional rectifier Precision rectifier
1. Ordinary PN junction diode Ordinary diode placing in the feedback loop diode
is used of an op-amp.
2. Diode conducts when 𝑉𝑖 > 0.7𝑣 (cut in Diode conducts, when 𝑉𝑖 ≤ 0.7𝑣 , for silicon

8
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
voltage) for silicon
3. Crossover distortion occurs Cross over distortion eliminated
21. Why active guard drive is necessary for an instrumentation amplifier?(2012 May)
• Practically the common ground bus is shared by variety of circuits.
• Due to ground loop interference additional voltage drop gets inserted which may cause error in low level
measurements.
• Due to distribution cable capacitances there is degradation of CMRR.
• The active guard drive eliminates all these problems and hence necessary for an instrumentation
amplifier
22. Define bandwidth of a filter.(2014 Dec)
• Bandwidth of a filter is defined as the difference between higher cut-off frequency 𝑓ℎ and lower cut-off
frequency 𝑓𝑙 . 𝑩𝑾 = 𝒇𝒉 − 𝒇𝒍
23. What is voltage follower? (2014 May) Draw a voltage follower circuit using an operational
amplifier.(Dec'13)
• Output voltage follows the input voltage. (i.e) output voltage is equal to the input voltage.
• Voltage follower circuit provides high input impedance buffer.
• It can be used in impedance matching applications.

24. Give the schematic of op-amp based current to voltage converter.(2010 May)

25. What is V to I converter?(2008 Dec)

𝒗𝒊
𝒊𝑳 =
𝑹𝟏
26. Draw the circuit diagram of peak detector with waveforms.(2014 May) (Dec’16).

9
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

UNIT -III
ANALOG MULTIPLIER AND PLL
PART-A:
1. List the applications of Multiplier ICs(Dec’19) Mention two applications of analog multiplier.
(Dec’15)
1. Voltage squarer 2.Frequency doubler 3.Voltage divider 4.Square rooter
5. Phase angle detector
2. Differentiate Lock-In-Range and Capture Range of PLL. (Dec’19)Define: (a) capture range and
(b) lock range of phase locked loop (PLL).(Dec’15) (2010 May) . (2008 Dec) (2010Dec) .(2013 Dec)
(2012 Dec)
• Lock in range: The range of frequencies over which the PLL can maintain lock with an input signal.
• Capture range: The range of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire lock with an input signal.

3. What is Gilbert Multiplier Cell?( May’18)(May’19)

• A circuit which uses emitter coupled pair in series with a cross coupled emitter coupled pairs is called a
Gilbert cell.
4. List the basic building blocks of PLL. (May’19)
• Phase Detector
• Low pass filter
• Voltage controlled oscillator and
• Feedback path (which mayinclude a frequency divider)
5. Draw the basic functional diagram of a PLL. (2008 Dec)

6. Mention the significances of Gilbert Multiplier cell.(Dec’18)

• As the devices are symmetrically cross-coupled and the current IE is constant, the large common mode
shift at the output gets eliminated.
7. State any two terminologies associated with multiplier characteristics.( May’18)
(i) Accuracy
(ii) Linearity
(iii) Squaring Mode Accuracy
(iv) Bandwidth
(v) Quadrant
3. How is frequency stability obtained in a PLL by use of a VCO?(May’17)
• VCO has a initial free-running frequency 𝑓0 before application of inputVoltage.
• 𝑓0 is compared with unknown input frequency 𝑓𝑖 .

10
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• Depending on the compared result, a positive (or) negative voltage is generated and given asinput to
VCO.
• The VCO thus changes its frequency to a new frequency, 𝑓0 ± ∆𝑓.
• This operation continuous until 𝑓0 ± ∆𝑓 = 𝑓𝑖 thereby achieving frequency stability.
8. Mention the need of pre-distortion circuits in Gilbert analog multiplier and how is the
configuration of Gilbert multiplier done with pre-distortion circuits. (Dec’17)
• When 𝑉1and 𝑉2are very large, a non-linearity function can be used to pre-distort the input signals. This is
the need for pre-distortion circuits.
• Pre-distortion circuits can be implemented by introducing a non-linear inverse hyperbolic tangent
function before applying the input signal to Gilbert cell.
• This increases the possibility of even applying a very large input signals without saturating the multiplied
output of the cell.
9. Give any four application of PLL. .(2018 Dec) (2009 Dec). List the applications of PLL. (2008
Dec)Explain any Four Applications of NE 565 PLL. (Dec’16)
• Frequency multiplication / Division
• AM Detection
• Frequency synthesizing
• Frequency Translation
• FSK modulator / demodulator
• FM Detection
10. Draw the Block Diagram of IC 566 VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator).(Dec’16)

11. What is a two quadrant Multiplier? (2012 Dec).

• In two Quadrant multiplier anyone input voltage 𝑉1or 𝑉2is held positive (Unipolar), other input is
allowed to swing in both positive and negative (Bipolar) polarity.
12. What is a four quadrant multiplier?(May’16)
If both inputs may be either positive or negative, the IC is called a four quadrant multiplier.

11
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
13. What are the advantages of variable transconductance technique? (2012 May)
• Easy to fabricate inside the chip.
• Accurate output
• It can provide four Quadrant multiplication
• Speed of operation is high.
14. What is meant by frequency synthesizing?(2013 Dec)What is the need for frequency synthesizer?
(May/June 2014)
• The PLL can be used as the basis for frequency synthesizer that can produce a precise series of
frequencies that are derived from a stable crystal controlled oscillator.
15. What is VCO? (2010 May)VCO is also called as V-f converter. Why? (2012 May)
• VCO is voltage controlled oscillator, produce free running frequency 𝑓𝑂 , when the control voltage input
𝑉𝐶 applied, it is changed the new voltage ∆𝑉𝐶 it is changed the output frequency 𝑓𝑂 to new frequency ∆𝑓𝑂 .
• The voltage is converted as frequency. So it is called voltage to frequency converter.
16. What is FSK technique? (2008 May)
• The FSK stands for frequency shift keying, Binary data is transmitted by means of high frequency carrier, which
is shifted between two frequencies such as mark (Logic 1) and space (logic 0) frequencies.
17. What is the function of phase detector in a PLL? (2014 Dec)
• The function of phase defector in PLL, to compare phase between input signal 𝑓𝑠 with VCOoutput signal
𝑓𝑂 , and to produce de error voltage (𝑉𝑒 ) with proportional to phase comparison.
18. Draw the circuit diagram of a PLL circuit using as a FM detector.(May’16)

19. How do you convert a basic multiplier to a squaring and square root circuit? (May’15)
Squaringthe input:

𝒗𝟐𝒊
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇
Square root:

𝑽𝒐 = √𝑽𝒓𝒆𝒇 |𝑽𝒊𝒏 |
20. Draw the circuit diagram of FSK modulator using OP-amp. (2011May)

12
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

21. What are the applications of PLL for AM detection? (May’15) (Draw the circuit of AM detector
using PLL. (2008 May))

22. Draw the relation between capture range and lock in range in PLL. (Apr/May 2010)

UNIT 4 :
ANALOG TO DIGITAL AND DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTERS
PART A
1. For an n bit ADC how many clock cycle is required for its conversion when flash type and
successive approximation ADC is used? (May’22)
• Flash type ADC requires very less conversion time.
• It is equal to the propagation delay of comparator and the encoder.
• For successive approximation ADC, n+1 clock cycles are required for conversion.
2. What are the demerits of weighted resistor Digital to Analog Converter? (Dec’19)What is the
limitation of weighted resistor DAC network?(2011 May)
• Wide range of resistors are required in binary weighted resistor type DAC.
• For better resolution, the input binary length has to be increased. Thus the number of bit increases the
range of resistance value increases.
• For a 12 bit DAC the largest resistor required is 5.12MΩ, if the smallest is 2.5KΩ.
• The fabrication of such a large resistance in IC are not practical.
13
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• Voltage drop across the large resistor due to bias current also affects the accuracy.
• For smaller value of resistors, the loading effect may occur.
3. Mention any two specifications of D/A converter. (2013 May) (2012 May) (2011 Dec)
Settling time:(May’19)
1
• It represents the time taken for the output to settle within a specified band ±(2) LSB of its final value
following a code change at the input (usually a full-scale change).
• It depends upon the switching time of the logic circuit due to internal parasitic capacitances and
inductances.
• Settling time ranges from 100ns to 10µs depending on word length.
Monotonicity:
• A monotonic DAC is the one whose analog output increases for an increase in digital input.
• A monotonic characteristic is essential in control applications, otherwise approximation ADC a non-
monotonic characteristic may lead missing codes.
1
• If a DAC has to be monotonic, the error should be less than ±(2) LSB at each output level.
1
• All the commercially available DAC are monotonic because the linearity error never exceeds ±( ) LSB
2
at each output level.
4. Differentiate between direct type and integrating type in ADC converters.(Dec’18) How is the
classification of A/D converters carried out based on their operational features? (Dec’17)
S.No Direct type Integrating type
1 Direct type ADCs compares a given analog signal Integrating type ADCs perform
with the internally generated equivalent signal. conversion in an indirect manner by first
changing the analog input signal to a
linear function of time or frequency and
then to digital code.
2 • This group includes, • Two most widely used converters are
➢ Flash (comparator) type converter. ➢ Charge balancing ADC
➢ Counter type converter. ➢ Dual slope ADC
➢ Tracking or servo converter.
➢ Successive approximation type converter.
5. What is the need for sample and hold circuit?(Dec’18)
• When used with an analog to digital converter (ADC) the input signal is sampled periodically.
• It is necessary to hold the sampled input signal voltage constant because the ADC needs a finite amount
of time to measure the signal voltage.
6. Define Sampling.( May’18)
• The process of taking sample points from the analog input signal at fixed (or) constant time interval is
known as sampling.
• Sampling is the first process step in converting a analog signal to digital signal.
7. Write the names of the switches used in MOS Transistors.( May’18) What are the switches for
DAC? (Nov / Dec 2010)What is the need for Electronic Switches in D/A Converter?(Dec’16)
• The electronic SPDT switches used in digital to analog converters. Binary digital inputs obtained by switches. The
types of switches used in DAC,
(i) Tottem pole MOSFET switch
(ii) CMOS inverter switch.
8. Why are Scottky diodes used in sample- and- hold circuits? ( May’17)
• A forward-biased Schottky diode does not have any minority charge carrier storage.
14
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• This allows them to switch more quickly than regular diodes, resulting in lower transition time from the
sample to the hold step.
• The absence of storage also results in a lower hold state or sampling error, resulting in a more accurate
sample at the output.
9. Determine the number of comparators and resistors required for 8 bit flash type ADC.(Dec’15)
• The number of comparators are required.2n − 1 Where n is the desired number of bits.
• To design. 8 bit flash type ADC, 28 − 1 = 255 equal intervals.
255number of comparators and 255 resistors required.
10. Mention two advantages of R-2R ladder type digital to analog converter when compared to
weighted resistor type digital to analog converter.(Dec’15) Compare and contrast binary ladder
and R-2R ladder DAC.(2010 Dec)
S.No Binary ladder R-2R ladder DAC
1. Binary weighted resistors used. Only two R and 2R resistors used.
2. It uses multiple resistor values with wide range of For wide range of bits also two resistors
bits. For 8 bit DAC, 21 𝑅 , … . . 28 𝑅resistors required.
required.
3. High resistor value to make heat dissipation. Heat dissipation is less.
4. In monolithic DAC large value resistors provide Easy to fabricate.
loading effect.
11. What are the advantage of Inverted R-2R (Current Type) Ladder D/A Converter over R-2R
(Voltage type) D/A Converter? (Dec’16)
S.No Inverted R-2R (Current Type) R-2R (Voltage type)
1. • Each binary input is connected through the • In R-2R ladder type DAC, current
switch to either ground or to the inverting input flowing in the resistors changes as the input
terminal of op-amp, which is at virtual ground. So data changes.
the current flow through any resistor is constant and
is independent of the input binary bit value.
2. Less power dissipation. • More power dissipation causes heating,
which in turn creates non-linearity in DAC.
12. What is over sampling? (May’15)
• A/D converter where the input signal is sampled much faster than the Nyquist rate, is called an over
sampling A/D converter.
• The signal bandwidth of the input signal is denoted by 𝑓𝑏 and the Nyquist rate, Which is the minimum
sampling frequency required to avoid aliasing, equals
𝒇𝑵 = 𝟐𝒇𝒃
• The principle of using over sampling is that by sampling the signal many times, errors due to noise and
coarse quantization are averaged out.
13. What is the main drawback of dual slope ADC?(2012 Dec)(2012 May)
The main disadvantage of dual slope ADC is long conversion time. Dual slope converters suitable for
accurate measurement of slowly varying signals
14. Mention the fastest ADC and specify its disadvantages.(2011 May)Why Flash ADC is called fastest
ADC?(2009 Dec) Which type of ADC is fastest? Why? (2008 May)
• Flash type (or) parallel comparator ADC is also called fastest ADC. Because parallel comparators
simultaneously produced the output.

15
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
15. For an n-bit flash type A/D converter, how many comparators are required? State the
disadvantages of that type of converter? (2013 May) Mention the fastest ADC and specify its
disadvantages.(2011 May)
• For example a 3 bit A/D converter, 23 − 1 = 7 comparators with one reference comparator, totally 8
comparators required.
Disadvantage: The number of comparators required almost doubles for each added bit.
• The priority encoder is more complex for large value of n.
• Expensive.
16. State the principle of single slope A/D converter. (2013 Dec)
• First the analog input signal is converted in to time or frequency signal and then compare with known
reference voltage using comparator.
• If the input signal is less than 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the counter will allowed to count the clock pulses.When𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 the
counter will be stopped.
• The value is displayed with the help of BCD counter.
17. Give the applications of sample and hold circuit. (2014 Dec)
1. Digital interfacing circuits
2. Analog to Digital converters
3. Pulse code modulation systems.
18. Give any two advantages of Successive Approximation type ADC. (2014 May)
• Accurate digital output for given analog input.
• Efficient code converter.
• n clock pulse required for n bit conversion.
19. What is a sample and hold circuit. (2014 May)Draw a sample and hold circuit.(2013 Dec)
A sample and hold circuit samples an input signal and holds on to it's last sampled until the input sampled
again.

20. Define resolution and conversion time of DAC. (2010 Dec)Define resolution of DAC.(2014
Dec)(2008 Dec) Define resolution of a data converter. (2010 May)
• The resolution of a converter is the smallest change in voltage which may be produce at the output (or
input) of the converter.
• In short, the resolution is equal to the value of the 1 LSB
𝐕𝐅𝐒
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 (𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐬) = 𝐧 = 𝟏 𝐋𝐒𝐁 𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝟐 −𝟏
21. Find the resolution of 12-bit DAC. (2009 May)
• A 12 bit D/A converter has a resolution of 1 part in 𝟐𝐧 − 𝟏 .
212 − 1 = 4095
1 1
% Resolution (in volts) = n = × 100 = 0.024%
2 − 1 4095
22. Give the advantages of integrating type ADC.(2010 May)
• Highly accurate
16
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• Cost is low
• It is immune to temperature caused variations
UNIT 5:
WAVEFORM GENERATORS AND SPECIAL FUNCTION ICs
PART A
1. List the limitations of three terminal IC voltage regulator. (Dec’19) What are the limitations of
three terminal regulators?(2012 May)(2011 May)
• No short circuit protection
• Output voltage is fixed (positive or negative)
2. List the types of multivibrators. (2014 May)What are the types of multivibrator?(May’19)
• Astable Multivibrator
• Monostable Multivibrator
• Bistable Multivibrator
3. List the various applications or multivibrators.(Dec’18)
• Monostable multivibrator is used as delay and timing circuits. It is often used to trigger another pulse generator.
• Astable multivibrators involve in radio gears to transmit and receive radio signals and also in time.
4. Name some LC oscillator circuits. ( May’18)
• Colpitt’s Oscillator
• Hartley Oscillator
• Clapp Oscillator
5. Define current transfer ratio of an opto-coupler. (Dec’17)
• Current transfer ratio (CTR)-It refers to the ratio of the output collector current(𝐼𝐶 )to the input forward
𝑰
current (𝐼𝐹 ). 𝑪𝑻𝑹 = 𝑰𝑪 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑭
6. What is the need for voltage regulator ICs? ( May’17)
• Programmable output
• Current /Voltage boosting
• Internal short-circuit limiting
• Thermal shutdown
• Floating operation for high voltage applications.
7. Draw the circuit diagram of a general purpose voltage regulator.(Dec’18)

8. Draw a fixed voltage regulator circuit and state its operations. (Dec’17)What is the purpose of
connecting a capacitor at the input and the output side of an IC voltage regulator?(Dec’15)
• A capacitor 𝐶𝑖 (0.33μF) is usually connected between input terminal and ground to cancel the inductive
effects due to long distribution leads.
• The output capacitor 𝐶𝑂 (1 μF) improves the transient response.

17
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

9. Distinguish the principle of linear regulator and a switched mode power supply. ( May’17)
S.No. Linear Voltage Regulators Switching Regulators
1 Pass transistor works continuously Pass transistor acts as switch and no continuous operation
2 Poor efficiency Good efficiency
3 Transformers are needed Transformers are not needed(step-down)
4 More power dissipation Less power dissipation
10. What is an isolation amplifier? Mention its applications.(May’16)(2009 Dec )(2008 Dec) What is
the need for isolation amplifiers? (2011 Dec)
• Isolation amplifier which provides electrical isolation between input and output. The input and output
optically connects and electrically isolated.
• It is used in medical instruments optical isolation done by LED and photo detector.
• Applications: Power sensors and flow meter.
11. State the two conditions for oscillation. (May’15)
• The magnitude of the loop gain 𝐴𝛽 must be unity.
• The total phase shift of closed loop gain is 0𝑜 𝑜𝑟 3600 .
12. What is the function of a Voltage Regulator? Name few IC Voltage Regulators.(Dec’16)
• Voltage regulators are used to keep power supply potentials constant inspite of change in load current or
source voltage the commonly used IC voltage regulators are 78xx, 79xx and 723.

13. Draw the Block Schematic of IC 555 Timer.(Dec’16)

14. Mention two applications of frequency to voltage converter. (Dec’15)

• Integrating A/D converter
• Isolated data transmission
• FM analog signal modulation / demodulation
• Motor speed control
15. Draw the functional block diagram of 723 regulator. (May’15)

18
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

16. State the applications of 555 timer IC.(2013 Dec)

o Square wave generator (Astable, Monostable Multivibrators)
o Missing pulse detector
o Linear ramp generator
o Pulse width modulator
17. Define line and load regulation of a regulator.(2013 Dec)(2011 Dec)(2014 Dec)(May’18)
Line/input regulation:
• It is defined as the percentage change in the output voltage for a change in the input voltage.
• It is usually expressed in millivolts or as a percentage of the output voltage.
• The typical value of line regulation from the data sheet of 7805 is 3 mv.
Load regulation:
• It is defined as the change in output voltage for a change in load current and it also expressed in millivolt
or as a percentage of 𝑉𝑂 .
• Typical value of load regulation for7805 is 15 mV for 5mA <𝐼𝑂 <1.5A.
18. What are the different protection circuits inside the monolithic IC regulator? (2014 Dec)
• Short circuit protection
• Current limit and current
• Current fold back
• Ripple rejection.
19. What are the limitations of IC 723 general purpose regulator? (2012 May)(2012 Dec)
o Due to low line frequency (50Hz) large value of capacitors are required.
o The efficiency is very low.
o The input voltage must be greater than the output voltage.
o The required input step-down transformer is bulky and expensive.
20. What is power amplifier?(2012 Dec)
• An amplifier receives an input signal from some transducer or other input source and provides a large
amplified signal to some output device or another amplifier stage.
• The power amplifier is basically used to amplify an audio signal faithfully.
• A power amplifier is required to deliver a large amount of power and as such it has to handle large
current, in order to achieve high power amplification.
21. Define duty cycle of a periodic pulse waveform. (2013 May) Define the duty cycle in astable
multivibrator using IC 555. (2011 Dec)
𝑡𝐻𝐼𝐺𝐻 = 0.693 RC
𝑡𝐿𝑂𝑊 = 0.693R B C
𝑇 = 𝑡𝐻𝐼𝐺𝐻 + 𝑡𝐿𝑂𝑊
𝑡𝐻𝐼𝐺𝐻 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵
𝐷= × 100% ⇒ × 100%
𝑇 𝑅𝐴 + 2 𝑅𝐵

19
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
22. What is thermal shutdown applied to voltage regulators? (2010 Dec)
• All IC voltage regulators has in built temperature sensor, if the temperature rise 1250to 1500 the
device becomes, very hot and leads to damage when the temperature increases, the device shutdown or cut
off, leads to output current is reduced. This is called thermal shutdown.
23. What are the three different waveforms generated by ICL8038? (2010 May)
• Square wave
• Triangular wave
• Sine wave
24. Sketch the monostable multivibrator circuit diagram using IC555. (2010 Dec)

25. What is switched capacitor filter? Mention its applications. (2009 May)(2008 May(2012 May)
• In switched capacitor filter differ from active filter by the way of no external inductors and capacitors.
• It contains on chip MOS transistors switch and internal capacitor that simulates the behaviors of resistor the
resistance value depends on capacitance c and 𝑓𝐶𝐿𝐾
26. What are the advantages of a switched capacitor filter? (2008 Dec)(2011 Dec)
• Less 'external components
• High accuracy
• It provides Low pass, High pass and Band pass filters
• Temperature stability.
27. Define SMPS. (2009 Dec)
SMPS is switched mode power supply, pass transistors providing a switching, that supplies, change an
unregulated input of 24V into a regulated dc output voltage of 1000V. SMPS also used in personal
computers, video projectors and measuring instruments.
28. What are the requirements of designing a video amplifier? (2009 May)
• To increase the bandwidth, the gain must be reduced by decreasingR 𝐿 .
• The load capacitance should be as small as possible.
• The CE-CB cascode amplifier is used because of its high frequency when compared to CE amplifier.
• Use one or more negative feedback loops to increase the bandwidth of the amplifier.
29. Draw the internal circuit diagram for audio power amplifier. (2010 May)

20
 EC3451-LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

30. What is an opto-coupler? (2014 May)State the function of opto-coupler.(May’19)

• An opto-isolator,(also called an opto-coupler, photo-coupler, or optical isolator),is a component that
transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by using light.
• Opto-isolators prevent high voltagesfrom affecting the system receiving the signal.
• The combined package of a LED and photo diode is called opto-coupler.

31. List the characteristics of optocoupler.(2008 May)

• Current transfer ratio(CTR)
• Isolation voltage
• Response time
• 𝑽𝑪𝑬 (max)–This is the maximum allowable d.c voltage that can be applied across the output transistor.
• 𝑰𝑳 (𝒎𝒂𝒙)– This is the maximum permissible d.c current that can be allowed to flow in the input LED.
• Bandwidth- This is the maximum signal frequency that can be usefully passed through the opto-coupler
when the device is operated in normal mode.

21