1. What are the factors affecting selection of materials?

Explain briefly each of

them.
Ans: The factor affecting selection of materials are listed below: -
 Mechanical Properties
Materials must have adequate strength, durability, elasticity, and toughness to
withstand loads and stress without failure. For example, high-strength steel is
used in high-rise buildings due to its ability to handle significant stress.
 Cost and Availability
The cost of the material, including procurement and transportation, plays a vital
role. Locally available materials are often preferred as they reduce costs and
ensure timely supply.
 Durability and Lifespan
The material should resist environmental factors such as weathering, corrosion,
and chemical attacks to ensure longevity. For example, concrete is chosen for
its durability in structures exposed to harsh weather.
 Environmental Impact and Sustainability
Materials should have a minimal negative impact on the environment.
Recyclable and eco-friendly materials like fly ash in cement production are
preferred to promote sustainability.
 Aesthetic Requirements
In projects with architectural significance, the appearance and finish of
materials are critical. For instance, polished stone or glass is often used for their
visual appeal.
 Ease of Construction and Workability
Materials that are easy to handle, shape, and install can reduce construction
time and labor costs. For example, lightweight concrete is often used for faster
construction.
 Performance in Specific Conditions
Materials must be selected based on the specific environmental and functional
conditions, such as resistance to fire, moisture, or temperature changes. For
example, fire-resistant materials like gypsum boards are used in fire-prone
areas.
3. Explain the process of preparation of brick? Explain various methods of
moulding of brick.
Ans: The preparation of bricks involves the following stages:
a) Preparation of Soil:
 Removal of Topsoil: The top 200 mm of soil, which contains impurities, is
removed.
 Digging and Spreading: The remaining soil is dug and spread in layers of 600-
1200 mm thickness.
 Cleaning: Stones, vegetable matter, and pebbles are removed. Soil lumps are
crushed into a powder form.
 Weathering: Soil is exposed to the atmosphere for weeks to improve plasticity
and strength.
 Blending: Materials like sand, calcareous clays, coal ash, etc., are added to
improve soil quality and mixed uniformly with water.
 Tempering: Kneading the soil with water makes it stiff and homogeneous. For
handmade bricks, about 25-30% water is used. For large-scale production, a pug
mill is used for tempering.
b) Moulding of Bricks:
Moulding involves shaping the prepared clay into bricks, either manually or
using machines.
Hand Moulding:
 Ground Moulding: Bricks are moulded manually on the ground. A moulder can
make about 750 bricks daily.
 Table Moulding: Bricks are moulded on a table of specific dimensions. The
process is like ground moulding but uses a table.
Machine Moulding:
 Plastic Method: Pugged earth is pushed through a rectangular die and cut into
bricks using wires. These are called wire-cut bricks.
 Dry Method: Hard soil is powdered, mixed with water to form a stiff paste,
placed in moulds, and pressed to create bricks. These pressed bricks require no
drying before burning.
2. Discuss in detail some major properties that will have to be tested in a rock
(stone) before it can be selected for use in building construction.
Ans:
 Compressive Strength
 Definition: This measures the ability of the stone to withstand heavy loads
without crushing.
 Importance: Stones with high compressive strength, such as granite and
basalt, are preferred for structural components like columns and
foundations. A typical test involves applying load gradually until the stone
fails, and the strength is recorded in MPa.
 Durability
 Definition: Durability refers to the stone's ability to resist wear and decay
over time due to environmental factors like rain, wind, and temperature
fluctuations.
 Importance: Durable stones ensure long-lasting construction. Testing is
often done by exposing the stone to weathering conditions and observing
changes in physical and chemical properties.
 Hardness
 Definition: Hardness indicates the resistance of the stone to abrasion and
scratching.
 Importance: Hard stones, like quartzite, are ideal for pavements and floors
where wear and tear are significant. The Mohs scale is commonly used to
assess hardness.
 Porosity and Water Absorption
 Definition: Porosity is the volume of voids within the stone, and water
absorption measures how much water a stone can absorb.
 Importance: Stones with high porosity and water absorption, such as
sandstone, are unsuitable for damp areas as they are prone to water
damage and frost action. Tests involve immersing the stone in water and
measuring weight differences.
 Specific Gravity
 Definition: Specific gravity is the ratio of the stone's density to the density
of water.
  Importance: Stones with higher specific gravity are denser and stronger,
making them ideal for heavy construction. This property is determined
using standard laboratory procedures.
 Resistance to Fire
 Definition: The ability of a stone to withstand high temperatures without
significant loss of strength or cracking.
 Importance: Stones like granite and slate are more fire-resistant and
suitable for construction in fire-prone areas.
 Workability
 Definition: Workability refers to how easily a stone can be cut, dressed, or
carved into the desired shape.
 Importance: Stones with moderate hardness and good workability, such
as limestone and marble, are preferred for aesthetic applications like
cladding and decorative features.
 Toughness
 Definition: Toughness indicates the ability of the stone to resist impact
forces without fracturing.
 Importance: Tough stones, like basalt, are ideal for areas subjected to
dynamic loads, such as roads and bridges.
4. What are the different types of tiles? Mention their uses in civil engineering.
Ans:
 Ceramic Tiles
 Uses: Commonly used for flooring, walls, and countertops due to their
durability, resistance to stains, and ease of cleaning.
 Porcelain Tiles
 Uses: Ideal for both indoor and outdoor applications, including floors and
walls, as they are water-resistant, durable, and low-maintenance.
 Vitrified Tiles
 Uses: Suitable for high-traffic areas like commercial buildings, offices, and
residential spaces due to their strength and resistance to scratches and
stains.
 Terracotta Tiles
 Uses: Used for decorative purposes in interiors and exteriors, particularly
in rustic or traditional-style architecture.
 Cement Tiles
 Uses: Popular in outdoor spaces, patios, and industrial buildings due to
their durability and slip resistance.
 Glass Tiles
 Uses: Used in decorative wall cladding, bathrooms, and kitchens for a
modern and aesthetic finish.
 Mosaic Tiles
 Uses: Primarily used in decorative applications, swimming pools, and
walls for intricate patterns and designs.
 Natural Stone Tiles (e.g., marble, granite, slate)
 Uses: Suitable for luxury flooring, walls, countertops, and cladding due to
their elegance and durability.
 Quarry Tiles
 Uses: Used in commercial kitchens, factories, and outdoor areas due to
their durability and resistance to grease and moisture.
 PVC Tiles
 Uses: Used in temporary flooring or areas with lower load requirements, as
they are affordable and easy to install.
6. Draw the systematic flow diagram of modern process of cement.
Ans:
5. What are the ingredients of Portland cement? State the function and limits
of each of them.
Ans:
Ingredients of Portland Cement, Their Functions, and Percentage Limits
a. Lime (CaO)
 Percentage: 62-65%
 Function: Provides strength and durability by reacting with silica to form
calcium silicates. It controls the setting time and strength development.
 Limit: Excess lime can cause expansion and cracking, while deficiency
reduces strength.
b. Silica (SiO₂)
 Percentage: 17-25%
 Function: Contributes to strength by forming dicalcium and tricalcium
silicates. It provides long-term strength and durability.
 Limit: Excess silica increases strength but slows setting.
c. Alumina (Al₂O₃)
 Percentage: 3-8%
 Function: Lowers the clinkering temperature during manufacturing and
imparts quick setting.
 Limit: Excess alumina reduces strength and increases vulnerability to
chemical attacks.
d. Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O)
 Percentage: 3-4%
 Function: Regulates the setting time of cement and prevents it from setting
too quickly.
 Limit: Excess gypsum causes expansion and cracking. 5. Iron Oxide
(Fe₂O₃)
e. Iron Oxide (Fe2O3)
 Percentage: 3-4%
 Function: Imparts color to cement and aids in the fusion of raw materials
during clinkering.
 Limit: Excess iron oxide can affect the color and quality of cement.
f. Magnesia (MgO)
 Percentage: 1-3%
 Function: Increases strength and contributes to the hardness of the
cement.
 Limit: Excess magnesia causes unsoundness and cracking.
g. Alkalies (Na2O, K2O)
 Percentage: In traces
 Function: Improve the workability of cement during application.
 Limit: Excess alkalies cause efflorescence and reduce durability due to
reactions with aggregates.
7. What are the different ingredients of oil paints? Explain briefly each of them?
Ans:
Ingredients of Oil Paints and Their Functions
Base
 Function: Provides the body to the paint and forms the main opaque
component. It ensures coverage and adhesion to the surface.
 Examples: White lead, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide.
Vehicle
 Function: Acts as a binder to hold the pigment particles together and helps
the paint adhere to the surface. It also determines the paint's flow and
drying properties.
 Examples: Linseed oil, poppy oil.
Pigments
 Function: Provides color and opacity to the paint. It also protects the
painted surface from environmental effects.
 Examples: Natural or synthetic compounds like ochres (yellow),
ultramarine (blue), and chromium oxide (green).
Driers
 Function: Speeds up the drying process by promoting oxidation and
hardening of the oil.
 Examples: Lead acetate, cobalt, and manganese compounds.
Thinners
 Function: Reduces the viscosity of the paint for easier application and
smooth flow. It evaporates after application, leaving behind a solid film.
 Examples: Turpentine, mineral spirits.
Extenders
 Function: Reduces the cost of paint and improves its durability without
affecting the quality significantly.
 Examples: Chalk, silica.
8. Classify the steel on the basis of Carbon content? Mention their uses in civil
engineering.
Ans: Classification of Steel Based on Carbon Content
a) Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel)
 Carbon Content: 0.05% to 0.25%
 Properties: Ductile, malleable, and easy to weld. Low tensile strength but
excellent flexibility.
Uses in Civil Engineering:
 Construction of structural components like beams, columns, and plates.
 Reinforcement bars in reinforced concrete structures.
 Fabrication of nuts, bolts, and other fasteners
b) Medium Carbon Steel
 Carbon Content: 0.25% to 0.60%
 Properties: Higher strength and hardness than mild steel, but less ductile.
Moderate machinability and wear resistance.
Uses in Civil Engineering:
 Manufacturing of structural components that require higher strength, like
girders and railway tracks.
 Fabrication of tools, machinery parts, and heavy equipment.
c) High Carbon Steel
 Carbon Content: 0.60% to 1.50%
 Properties: Very strong and hard but brittle. Resistant to wear and
abrasion.
Uses in Civil Engineering:
 Tools and cutting equipment such as chisels and drills.
 Wire ropes, prestressed cables, and high-strength bolts used in bridge
construction and other high-load structures.