 LITHOSPHERE

It is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth. It is made up of rocks and minerals and
covered by a thin layer of soil. It is an irregular surface with various landforms such as
mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, etc. Landforms are found over the continents and also
on the ocean floors.

---DOMAIN OF EARTH

The domain of water is referred to as hydrosphere. It comprises various sources of water and
different types of water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc. It is essential for all living
organisms.

The atmosphereis the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. The gravitational force of the earth
holds the atmosphere around it. It protects usfrom the harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun.It
consists of a number of gases, dust and water vapour.The changes in the atmosphere produce
changes inthe weather and climate.

Plant and animal kingdom together make biosphereor the living world. It is a narrow zone of the
earthwhere land, water and air interact with each other tosupport life.

 ECOSYSTEM:It is asystem formed by theinteraction of allliving organisms witheach other

and withthe physical andchemical factors ofthe environment inwhich they live, alllinked by
transfer ofenergy and material.
  INTERIOR OF THE EARTH

Theearth is made up ofseveral concentriclayers with one inside another.

 CRUST –

 Theuppermost layer overthe earth’s surface iscalled the crust. It is thethinnest of all
thelayers.
 It is about 35 km.on the continentalmasses and only 5 km.on the ocean floors.
 The main mineralconstituents of thecontinental mass aresilicaand alumina. It isthus called
sial(si-silicaand al-alumina).Theoceanic crust mainlyconsists of silica andmagnesium; it is
thereforecalled sima (si-silica andma-magnesium).

CONTINENTAL CRUST SILICA + ALUMINIUM SIAL

OCEANIC CRUST SILICA + MAGNESIUM SIMA.

 MANTLE
 Just beneath the crustis the mantle whichextends up to a depth of2900 km. below the crust.
 CORE
The innermost layer is the core with a radius of about 3500 km. It is mainly made up of nickel and
iron and is called nife(ni – nickel and fe – ferrous i.e. iron). The central core has very high
temperature and pressure.
NOTE-
Do you know?
 The crust forms only 1 per cent of the volume of the earth, 84 per cent consists of the mantle
and 15 per cent makes the core.
 The radius of the earth is 6371 km.
 Igneous: Latin wordIgnis meaning fire.
 Sedimentary: Latin word sedimentum meaning settle down.
 Metamorphic: Greek word metamorphose meaning change of form.

 ROCKS AND MINERALS

Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up theearth’s crust is called a rock. Rocks can be of
differentcolour, size and texture.There are three major types of rocks: igneous rocks,sedimentary
rocks and metamorphic rocks.
IGNEOUS ROCKS

When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid.Rocks thus formed are called igneous rocks. They
arealso called primary rocks.

 There are two types of igneous rocks:

Intrusive rocks
Extrusive rocks.

Lava is actually fiery red molten magma coming out fromthe interior of the earth on its surface. When
this moltenlava comes on the earth’s surface, it rapidly cools downand becomes solid. Rocks formed
in such a way on thecrust are called extrusive igneous rocks. They have avery fine grained structure.
For example, basalt. TheDeccan plateau is made up of basalt rocks.

When the molten magma cools down deep inside the earth’scrust. Solid rocks so formed are called
intrusive igneousrocks. Since they cool down slowly they form largegrains. Granite is an example
of such a rock. Grindingstones used to prepare paste/powder of spices and grainsare made of
granite.

---SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Rocks roll down, crack, and hit each other and arebroken down into small fragments. These smaller
particlesare called sediments. These sediments are transportedand deposited by wind, water, etc.
These loosesediments are compressed and hardened to formlayers of rocks. These types of rocks are
calledsedimentary rocks. For example,sandstone. These rocks may alsocontain fossils of plants,
animals and other microorganismsthat once lived on them.

Igneous and sedimentary rocks can changeinto metamorphic rocks under great heat and pressure.
For example, clay changes intoslate and limestone into marble.

--- METAMORPHIC ROCK

ROCK CYCLE

Molten magma Igneous rock Sedimentary rocks.

 When the igneous and sedimentary rocks are subjected to heat and pressure they change
into metamorphic rocks. The metamorphic rocks which are still under great heat and pressure
melt down to form molten magma. This molten magma again can cool down and solidify into
igneous rocks& cycle continues.
The lithosphere is broken into a number of plates knownas the Lithospheric plates. These plates
move around very slowly – just a fewmillimetres each year. This is because of the movementof the
molten magma inside the earth. The molten magmainside the earth moves in a circular manner.

 The movement of these plates causes changes on the surface of the earth.
 The forces which act in the interior of the earth are called as Endogenic forces and the forces
that work on the surface of the earth are called as Exogenic forces.
 Endogenic forces sometimes produce sudden movements and at the other times produce
slow movements.
 VOLCANO –
A volcano is a vent (opening) in the earth’s crust through which moltenmaterial
erupts suddenly.

 Salinity is the amount of salt in grams present in 1000 grams of water. The average salinity of
the oceans is 35 parts per thousand.
 Dead sea in Israel hassalinity of 340 gramsper liter of water.Swimmers can floatin it because
theincreased salt contentmakes it dense.
 March 22 iscelebrated as WorldWater Day when theneed to conservewater is reinforced indifferent
ways.

 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER BODIES :-

Oceans: -----------97.3
Ice-caps: ---------02.0
Ground water: --- 0.68
Fresh water lakes: ---0.009
Inland seas and salt lakes: --- 0.009
Atmosphere: ---- 0.0019
Rivers :--- 0.0001
100 %
 OCEAN CIRCULATION

The movements that occur in oceans can be broadly categorised as:

 Waves
 Tides
 Currents.

WAVE

TIDES

OCEAN CURRENTS
  FORESTS

TROPICAL EVERGREEN FORESTS

These forests are also called tropical rainforests. These thick forests occur in the regions nearthe
equator and close to the tropics. These regions arehot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year.
Asthere is no particular dry season, the trees do
not shedtheir leaves altogether. This is the reason they arecalled evergreen. The thick canopies of
the closelyspaced trees do not allow the sunlight to penetrateinside the forest even in the day time.
Hardwood treeslike rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common here.

 TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS

 Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests India, northern Australia and in centralAmerica.
 Trees shed their leaves in the dry season toconserve water.
 The hardwood trees - sal, teak, neem and shisham.
 Tigers, lions, elephants,langoors and monkeys etc.

TEMPERATE EVERGREEN FORESTS

These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas of the Western Ghats and the island groups of
Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar, upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu coast. They are at their best
in areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season. The trees reach great heights up to
60 metres or even above. Since the region is warm and wet throughout the year, it has a luxuriant
vegetation of all kinds trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a multilayered structure.They comprise both
hard and soft wood trees like oak,pine, eucalyptus, etc.

 TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS OR TEMPERATE BROAD-LEAF FORESTS

 They are a variety of temperate forest 'dominated' by trees that lose their leaves
each year.
 They are found in areas with warm moist summers and cool winters. Examples of
typical trees in the Northern Hemisphere's deciduous forests
include oak, maple, basswood, beech and elm, while in the Southern Hemisphere,
trees of the genus Nothofagus dominate this type of forest. They are also bound to
receive heavy rainfall.
  CONIFEROUS FORESTS

 In the higher latitudes (50° – 70°) of Northernhemisphere the spectacular Coniferous

forests are foundThese are also called as Taiga.
 These forests are also seen in the higher altitudes. They are tall, softwood evergreen
trees.

 Softwood- Chir, pine, cedar are the important variety oftrees in

these forests. Silver fox, mink, polar bear arethe common
animals found here.

 GRASSLANDS
 Tropical grasslands: These occur oneither side of the equator
and extend till the tropics. This vegetation grows inthe areas of
moderate to low amount ofrainfall. The grass can grow very tall,
about3 to 4 metres in height.
 Savannah grasslands of Africa are of this type.
 Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are common in tropical
grasslands.
 IMPORTANT FAMOUS GRASSLANDS OF THE WORLD
GRASSLANDS REGION

Steppe Europe and North Asia

Pustaz Hungary

Prairies USA

Pampas Argentina

Veld South Africa

Downs Australia

Cantebury New Zealand

Savannah Africa and Australia

Taiga Europe and Asia

Selvas South America

 TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
  Found mid-latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the
continents.
 Usually, grass here is short and nutritious.
 Wild buffaloes, bisons, antilopes are common in the temperate
region.
 GRASSLANDS ARE KNOWN BY DIFFERENT NAMES IN DIFFERENT REGIONS.

 TROPICAL GRASSLANDS
 East Africa- Savanna
 Brazil- Campos
 Venezuela- Llanos
 TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
 Argentina- Pampas
 N. America- Prairie
 S. Africa- Veld
 C. Asia- Steppe
 Australia- Down

 THORNY BUSHES
 These are found in the dry desert like regions. Tropical deserts are
located on the western margins of the continents. The vegetation
cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat.
 DESERT -
FORMATION OF DESERT
I. Formed due to rain shadow effect.

II. Formed when ocean air from the land is obstructed by mountain ranges from
east and from the west.

III. Cold currents play a decisive role because they reduce the humidity of the
coastal winds that resultant less precipitation or no precipitation.

 TYPES OF DESERT
(a) Rocky Desert

(b) Stony Desert

(c) Sandy Desert

 LIST OF WORLD DESERT

IMPORTANT DESERTS TYPE OF DESERT LOCATION

Antarctica Polar ice and tundra Antarctica
Arctic Polar ice and tundra Northern America (Alaska, Canada and Greenland)
Northern Europe (Finland, Iceland, Norway and
Sweden)Eastern Europe (European Russia)North Asia
(Siberia)
Sahara Subtropical North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan and
Tunisia)West Africa (Mali, Mauritania and Niger)Middle
Africa (Chad)East Africa (Eritrea)
Australian Desert Subtropical Australia
Arabian Desert Subtropical Western Asia (Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen)
Gobi Desert Cold Winter East Asia (China and Mongolia)
Kalahari Desert Subtropical Southern Africa (Botswana, Namibia and South
Africa)Middle Africa (Angola)
Patagonian Desert Cold Winter South America (Argentina and Chile)
Syrian Desert Subtropical Western Asia (Iraq, Jordan, and Syria)
Great Basin Cold Winter United States
Chihuahuan Desert Subtropical Central America (Mexico)
Northern America (United States)
Karakum Desert Cold Winter Turkmenistan
Colorado Plateau Cold Winter United States
Sonoran Desert Subtropical Central America (Mexico)Northern America (United
States)
Kyzylkum Desert Cold Winter Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan)
Taklamakan Desert Cold Winter China
Thar Desert Subtropical Indian Subcontinent (India and Pakistan)
Dasht-e Margo Subtropical Afghanistan
Registan Desert Subtropical Afghanistan
Atacama Desert Mild Coastal South America (Chile and Peru)
Mojave Desert Subtropical United States
Columbia Basin Cold Winter United States
Namib Desert Cool Coastal Southern Africa (Namibia)Middle Africa (Angola)
Dasht-e Kavir Subtropical Iran
Dasht-e Loot Subtropical Iran

 POLAR REGION VEGETATION

 The growth of natural vegetation is verylimited here. Only mosses, lichens and very
small shrubsare found here.
 It grows during the very short summer.
 This is called Tundra type of vegetation.
 This vegetationis found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia and NorthAmerica.
 The animals have thick fur and thick skin toprotect themselves from the cold
climatic conditions. Seal,walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snowfoxes
are some of the animals found here.

NOTE-

TRIBES HOMELAND

Bedouin Arab (desert region)

Berbers North Africa (east to west)

Bindibu or Aborigins Australian Desert

Bushmen/San Southern Africa (Kalahari Desert)

Chukchi Northern part of Russia

Eskimo North America

India Tribes Amazon Rainforest (Brazil)

Kazakhs Central Asia

Kirghiz Kyrgyzstan

Maoris New Zealand

Masai Kenya and Tanzania

Pygmies Central Africa

Red Indian North America

Samoyeds Siberia regions

Semangs Malay Peninsula

Tuareg North Africa

Yokuts South-west USA

Zulus Southern part of Africa

 Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco is a large oasis.

 A naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition is a
mineral.

 TYPES OF MINERALS
 On the basis of composition, minerals are classified mainly as metallic
and non-metallic minerals

 Metallic - Metallic minerals may be ferrous or non-ferrous.

 Ferrous minerals like iron ore, manganese and chromites contain
iron.
 A non-ferrous mineral does not contain iron but may contain some
other metal such as gold, silver, copper or lead.
 Non-metallic- minerals do not contain metals. Limestone, mica and
gypsum are examples of such minerals. The mineral fuels like coal and
petroleum are also non-metallic minerals.
  MINING

 Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface
layer; this is known as open-cast mining.

--- OPEN CAST MINING

 Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface
layer; this is known as open-cast mining.

---SHAFT MINING
 Deep bores, called shafts, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that
lie at great depths. This is called shaft mining.

 DRILLING

--- DRILLING

 Petroleum and natural gas occur far below the earth’s surface. Deep wells
are bored to take them out, this is called drilling.

 QUARRYING
 ---QUARRING

 Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out, by the process known
as quarrying.

 Shifting cultivation is known by different names in different parts of the

world --
 Jhumming - North-East India
 Milpa -Mexico
 Roca - Brazil.
 Ladang – Malaysia

 MAJOR CROPS
 RICE:
 Rice needs high temperature, high humidity and rainfall.
 It grows best in alluvial clayey soil, which can retain water.
 China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka and
Egypt.
 WHEAT:
 Wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall during growing
season and bright sunshine at the time of harvest.
 It thrives best in well drained loamy soil.

 MILLETS:
 They are also known as coarse grains and can be grown on less fertile and
sandy soils.
 It is a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high tomoderate temperature
and adequate rainfall.
 Jowar, bajra and ragi are grown in India.

 MAIZE:
 Maize requires moderate temperature, rainfall and lots of sunshine.
 It needs well-drained fertile soils.

 COTTON:
 Cotton requires high temperature, light rainfall, two hundred and ten frost-
free days and bright sunshine for its growth.
 It grows best on black and alluvial soils.
 JUTE:
 Jute was also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’.
 It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature, heavy
rainfall and humid climate.
 This crop is grown in the tropical areas. India and Bangladesh are the
leading producers of jute.

 COFFEE:
 Coffee requires warm and wet climate and well-drained loamy
soil. Hill slopes are more suitable for growth of this crop.
 Brazil is the leading producer followed by Columbia and India.

 TEA:
 This requires cool climate and well distributed high rainfall
throughout the year for the growth of its tender leaves.
 It needs well-drained loamy soils and gentle slopes.

 FACTS -
 The current population of India is 1,389,160,501 as of Saturday, March 6, 2021,
based on Worldometer elaboration of the latest United Nations data.
 India population is equivalent to 17.7% of the total world population.
 India ranks number 2 in the list of countries (and dependencies) by population.
 The population density in India is 464 per Km2 (1,202 people per mi2).
 The total land area is 2,973,190 Km2 (1,147,955 sq. miles)
 35.0 % of the population is urban (483,098,640 people in 2020)
 The median age in India is 28.4 years.

 The population pyramid of a country in which birth and death rates both are high is
broad at the base and rapidly narrows towards the top.

 In countries where death rates (especially amongst the very young) are decreasing,
the pyramid is broad in the younger age groups, because more infants survive to
adulthood. This can be seen in the pyramid for India.
 In countries like Japan, low birth rates make the pyramid narrow at the base (Fig
6.9). Decreased death rates allow numbers of people to reach old age

--- POPULATION TRANSITION

 INDIA
 LOCATION
 India is a vast country. Lying entirely in theNorthern hemisphere.
 The mainland extends between latitudes 8°4'N and37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and
97°25'E.

 NOTE-
 INDIRA POINT
Indira Point, southernmost point of India's territory, is a village in the
Nicobar district at Great Nicobar Island of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
India. It is located in the Great Nicobar.
 SIZE
 Land Area - 3.28million square km.
 2.4% of total Geographical area of the world.
 Seventh largest country ofthe world in terms of area & second largest in
terms of Population.
 Land Boundary -- 15,200 km
 The total length of thecoastline of the mainland, includingAndaman and
Nicobar and Lakshadweep,is 7,516.6 km.

 FACTS-
COASTAL STATES IN INDIA
 Coastal States of India: India has a coastline of 7516.6 km-- 5422.6 km of
mainland coastline and 1197 km of Indian islands touching 9 Indian States
and two Union Territories.
 Indian coastline touches nine states-- Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal and two union
territories-- Daman and Diu and Puducherry.
 The two Island territories of India are-- Andaman and Nicobar Islands in Bay
of Bengal and Lakshadweep Islands in the Arabian Sea.
  Gujarat has the longest coastline in India which lies in the Kathiawar
region of the state and is 1,600 km long.
 Goa is the smallest Indian state with a coastline of 160 km long.
 Country in the world with longest coast line – Canada.
 A landlocked country does not have access to the ocean since the
nearest coast is in another administrative unit.
 Every continent, except North America and Oceania, has landlocked
countries.
 The most significant include Bolivia, Switzerland, Austria,
Kazakhstan, and Mongolia.

 India is bounded by the young fold mountains in the northwest, north and northeast.
South of about 22° north latitude, it begins to taper, and extends towards the Indian
Ocean, dividing it into two seas, the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal
on its east.
  From Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh, there is a time lag of two hours.
 Time along the Standard Meridian of India (82°30'E) passing through
Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh) is taken as the standard time for the whole country.

360*/24= 15*
Per hour 15*.
60/15= 4 min.
Earth moves 1degree in 04 min.

 INDIA AND THE WORLD

The Indian landmass has a central locationbetween the East and the West Asia. India is
asouthward extension of the Asian continent. TheTrans Indian Ocean routes, which connect
the
countries of Europe in the West and thecountries of East Asia, provide a strategic
centrallocation to India. Note that the Deccan Peninsulaprotrudes into the Indian Ocean,
thus helpingIndia to establish close contact with West Asia,Africa and Europe from the
western coast andwith Southeast and East Asia from the easterncoast. No other country
has a long coastline onthe Indian Ocean as India has and indeed, it isIndia’s eminent
position in the Indian Ocean,which justifies the naming of an Ocean after it.
  Since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, India’s distance from Europe
has been reduced by 7,000 km.

 INDIA’S NEIGHBOURS

 INDIA SHARES ITS BORDER WITH SEVEN COUNTRIES-

Afghanistan
Pakistan
China,
Bhutan
Nepal
Myanmar
Bangladesh
Sri Lanka and Maldives are two countries with water
borders.

NEIGHBOURING BORDERING STATES

COUNTRY
AFGHANISTAN Jammu and Kashmir (POK Part)
BANGLADESH West Bengal, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Assam
BHUTAN Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Sikkim, and West Bengal
CHINA Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Sikkim, and
 Arunachal Pradesh
MYANMAR Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, and Nagaland
NEPAL Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttrakhand
PAKISTAN Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Gujarat, and Rajasthan

Currently 28 states and 8 UTs.

Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channelof sea formed by the Palk
Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.
While Maldives Islands are situatedto the south of the Lakshadweep Islands.

PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA

The physical features of India can be grouped under the following physiographic divisions –
(1) The Himalayan Mountains
(2) The Northern Plains
(3) The Peninsular Plateau
(4) The Indian Desert
(5) The Coastal Plains
(6) The Islands

THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS

 The Himalayas, geologically young andstructurally fold mountains stretch over

thenorthern borders of India.
 These mountainranges run in a west-east direction from theIndus to the
Brahmaputra. Theyform an arc, which covers a distance of about2,400 Km. Their
width varies from 400 Km inKashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh.
 TheHimalaya consists of three parallel ranges inits longitudinal extent. A number of
valleys liebetween these ranges.
 The northern-mostrange is known as the Great or InnerHimalayas or the
Himadri. It is the mostcontinuous range consisting of the loftiestpeaks with an
average height of6,000 metres. It contains all prominentHimalayan peaks.
 The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite. It isperennially snow
bound, and a number ofglaciers descend from this range.

 HIMACHAL OR LESSER HIMALAYA.

 The ranges are mainly composedof highly compressed and altered rocks.
Thealtitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500metres and the average width is
of 50 Km.
 Ranges - Pir Panjal range forms the longestand the most important range,
the DhaulaDhar and the Mahabharat ranges are alsoprominent ones.
 This range consists of thefamous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra andKullu
Valley in Himachal Pradesh. Thisregion is well-known for its hill stations.
  INDUS &SATLUJ- PUNJAB HIMALAYA
 SATLUJ & KALI- KUMAON HIMALAYA
 KALI & TISTA – NEPAL HIMALAYA
 TISTA &BRAHMPUTRA- ASSAM HIMALAYA

 SHIWALIKS
 The outer-most range of the Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks.
 They extend over a widthof 10-50 Km and have an altitude varyingbetween 900 and
1100 metres.
 These rangesare composed of unconsolidated sedimentsbrought down by rivers
from the mainHimalayan ranges located farther north.These valleys are covered
with thickgravel and alluvium.
 The longitudinal valleylying between lesser Himalaya and theShiwaliks are known as
Duns.

--- HAR KI DUN

 Dehra Dun,Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of thewell-known Duns.

 PURVANCHAL OR EASTERN HIMALAYA

  Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply to the south and
spread along the eastern boundary of India.
 They are known as the PURVACHAL OR THE EASTERN HILLSand
mountains. These hills running through the north-eastern states are mostly
composed of strong sandstones, which are sedimentary rocks.
 Covered with dense forests, they mostly run as parallel ranges and valleys.
 The Purvachal comprises the PATKAI HILLS, THE NAGA HILLS, THE
MANIPUR HILLS AND THE MIZO HILLS.

THE NORTHERN PLAIN

 The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the three major river
systems, namely — the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their
tributaries.
 This plain is formed of alluvial soil.
 The plain being about 2400 km long and 240 to 320 km broad.
 The rivers coming from northern mountains are involved in depositional work. In the
lower course, due to gentle slope, the velocity of the river decreases, which results
in the formation of riverine islands.
 ‘Doab’ is made up of two words— ‘do’ meaning two and ‘ab’ meaning water.
Similarly‘Punjab’, is also made up two words — ‘Punj’ meaningfive and ‘ab’ meaning
water.
  The Northern Plain is broadly divided intothree sections.
1- Punjab Plains- Formed by the Indus and its tributaries.
2- The Ganga plain - Extends between Ghaggarand Teesta rivers.
3- In Assam lies the Brahmaputra plain.

 The rivers, afterdescending from the mountains depositpebbles in a narrow belt of

about 8 to 16 kmin width lying parallel to the slopes of theShiwaliks. It is known as
BHABAR. All thestreams disappear in this BHABAR belt.

 Southof this belt, the streams and rivers re-emergeand create a wet, swampy and
marshy regionknown as TERAI.

(TERAI REGION)

 NOTE -DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK - INDO-NEPAL BORDER IN THE LAKHIMPUR KHERI DISTRICT
(U.P.)

 The largest part of the northern plain isformed of older alluvium.

 It lies above thefloodplains of the rivers and presents a terracelikefeature.
 This part is known as BHANGAR.
 The soil in this region contains CALCAREOUS DEPOSITS, locally known as KANKAR.
 The newer, younger deposits of the floodplainsare called KHADAR.
 They are renewed almostevery year and so are fertile, thus, ideal forintensive
agriculture.

 THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

 The Peninsular plateau is a tablelandcomposed of the old crystalline, igneous
andmetamorphic rocks.
 It was formed due to thebreaking and drifting of the Gondwana landand thus,
making it a part of the oldestlandmass. The plateau has broad and
shallowvalleys and rounded hills.

 This plateau consistsof two broad divisions, namely,

CENTRAL HIGHLANDS.
DECCAN PLATEAU.
The partof the peninsular plateau lying to the north ofthe Narmada river,
covering a major area of theMalwa plateau, is known as the Central
Highlands.
  The furtherwestward extension gradually merges with thesandy and rocky
desert of Rajasthan.
 The Central Highlands are wider inthe west but narrower in the east. The
eastwardextensions of this plateau are locally knownas the BUNDELKHAND AND
BAGHELKHAND.

--- CHOTA NAGPUR PLATEAU.

 The CHOTANAGPUR PLATEAUmarks the further eastward extension, drained by
theDAMODAR RIVER.
 The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmassthat lies to the south of the river
Narmada.
 TheSatpura range flanks its broad base in the north,while THE MAHADEV, THE
KAIMUR HILLS AND THE MAIKAL RANGE form its eastern extensions.

An extension of thePlateau is also visible in the northeast, locallyknown as the

MEGHALAYA, KARBI-ANGLONG PLATEAU AND NORTH CACHAR HILLS.
It is separated by a faultfrom the Chotanagpur Plateau.
Three prominenthill ranges from the west to the east are the GARO, THE KHASI AND
THE JAINTIA HILLS.
 Western Ghats lieparallel to the western coast.
 They are continuousand can be crossed through passes only. Passes- THAL, BHOR
AND PAL GHATS.
 The Western Ghats are higher than theEastern Ghats. Their average elevation is
900–1600 metres as against 600 metres of theEastern Ghats.
 The Eastern Ghats stretchfrom the Mahanadi Valley to the Nilgiris in thesouth.
 The Eastern Ghats are discontinuousand irregular and dissected by rivers
draininginto the Bay of Bengal.

 The Western Ghats areknown by different local names.

 The height ofthe Western Ghats progressively increasesfrom north to south.
 The highest peaksinclude the ANAI MUDI (2,695 METRES) and theDoda Betta (2,637
metres).
 MAHENDRAGIRI (1,501 METRES)is the highest peak in theEastern Ghats.
 Shevroy Hills and the JavadiHills are located to the southeast of theEastern Ghats.
 One of the distinct features of thePeninsular plateau is the BLACK SOILareaknown
as DECEAN TRAP. This is of volcanicorigin, hence, the rocks are igneous.

 Actually,these rocks have denuded over time and areresponsible for the
formation of black soil. The

 ARAVALI HILLS

 lie on the western andnorthwestern margins of the Peninsularplateau.

 These are highly eroded hills and arefound as broken hills. They extend fromGujarat
to Delhi in a southwest-northeastdirection.
 The highest peak is GURU SHIKHAR (MOUNT ABU) at 1,722 metres (5,650 ft).

 THE INDIAN DESERT

 The Indian desert lies towards the westernmargins of the Aravali Hills.
 It is an undulatingsandy plain covered with sand dunes.
 It is the world's 17th-largest desert, and the world's 9th-largest hot subtropical
desert.
 Thisregion receives very low rainfall below 150 mmper year. It has arid climate with
low vegetationcover.
 Luni is the only large river inthis region.
 Barchans (crescent-shaped dunes) coverlarger areas but longitudinal dunes become
more prominent.

 THE COASTAL PLAINS

 The WESTERN COAST, sandwichedbetween the Western Ghats and the
ArabianSea, is a narrow plain.
It consists of three sections ---
 The NORTHERN PARTof the coast is calledthe KONKAN (MUMBAI –
GOA),
 The CENTRAL STRETCHis called the KANNAD PLAIN.
 While the SOUTHERN STRETCHis referred to as the MALABAR COAST.
KONKAN
KANNAD
MALABAR
 The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wideand level.
 In the NORTHERN PART, it is referred toas the NORTHERN CIRCAR.
 While the SOUTHERN PARTis known as the COROMANDEL COAST.

NOTE- The Chilika Lake is THE LARGEST SALT WATER LAKE IN INDIA . It lies in the
state
of ODISHA, to the south of the Mahanadi delta.

 IMPORTANT LAKES IN INDIA -

NAME STATE
Pulicat lake Andhra Pradesh
Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh
Deepor Beel Assam
Kanwar lake Bihar
Kankaria Lake Gujarat
Brahma Sarovar Haryana
Chandra Taal Himachal Pradesh
MaharanaPratap Sagar Himachal Pradesh
Dal Lake Jammu Kashmir
Wular Lake Jammu Kashmir
Kuttanad Lake Kerala
Sasthamkotta Kerala
Bhojtal Madhya Pradesh
Shivsagar Maharashtra
Loktak lake Manipur
Chilika Lake Odisha
Harike Punjab
Sambhar Lake Rajasthan
 Tsomgo Lake Sikkim
Hussain Sagar Telangana
Govind Bhallabh Pant Sagar Uttar Pradesh
Bhimtal Uttarakhand

 THE ISLANDS
Lakshadweep Islands grouplying close to the Malabar coast of Kerala.
Thisgroup of islands is composed of small coralisalnds.
Earlier they were known as Laccadive,Minicoy and Amindive.
In 1973, these werenamed as Lakshadweep. It covers small areaof 32
sq km.
KAVARATTI ISLANDis theadministrative headquarters of
Lakshadweep.
The PITTI ISLAND, which isuninhabited, has a bird sanctuary – PITTI
BIRD SANSTUARY.

 ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS

The entiregroup of islands is divided into two broadcategories –
The Andaman in the north
The Nicobar in the south.
It is believed that theseislands are an elevated portion of
submarinemountains.

NOTE- India’s only active volcano isfound on Barren island in Andaman and
Nicobargroup of Islands.

DRAINAGE
 INTRODUCTION

 The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as DRAINAGE and the
network of such channels is known as DRAINAGE SYSTEM.
 The drainage pattern of an area is the result of the geological time period, nature,
and structure of rocks, topography, slope, etc.
 About 77% of the drainage area consisting of THE GANGA, THE BRAHMAPUTRA,
THE MAHANADI, THE KRISHNA, etc. is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal.
 On the other hand, 23% comprising the Indus, THE NARMADA, THE TAPI, THE MAHI,
AND THE PERIYAR SYSTEMS discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.
 A river drain is a specific area, which is known as the CATCHMENT AREA of that
river.
 An area drained by a river and its tributaries is known as a DRAINAGE BASIN.
 The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the other is called as
the WATERSHED AREA.

 DRAINAGE PATTERN
 Following are the major drainage patterns −
o DENDRITIC
o RADIAL
o CENTRIPETAL
o TRELLIES

--- DENDRITIC PATTERN.

 A drainage pattern which looks like tree branches with lots of twigs is known
as DENDRITIC DRAINAGE PATTERN. For example, the rivers of northern plain.
 --- RADIAL DRAINAGE

 RADIAL DRAINAGE PATTERNS form when rivers originate from a hill and flow in all
directions. For example, the rivers originating from the Amarkantak.

 CENTRIPETAL DRAINAGE PATTERN IS FORMED when rivers discharge their waters

from all directions into a lake or a depression. For example, Loktak lake in
Manipur.

 TRELLIS DRAINAGE PATTERN IS FORMED when the primary tributaries of main rivers
flow parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join them at right angles. For
example, rivers in the upper part of the Himalayan region.

 CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINAGE
On the basis of the mode of origin, nature, and characteristics, the Indian
drainage is classified as −
THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE
o THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE.

 HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE
 Major Himalayan drainage systems are THE INDUS, THE GANGA, AND
THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIVERS.

 THE INDUS

(JC RAVI BEAS SINGH)

The total length of the Indus River system is 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km).
The Indus, which is also known as the SINDHU, is the westernmost of the
Himalayan Rivers in India.
The Indus originates from a glacier near BOKHAR CHU in the Tibetan region at an
altitude of 4,164 m in the KAILASH MOUNTAIN RANGE.
In Tibet, the Indus is known as SINGI KHAMBAN OR THE LION’S MOUTH.
The Indus enters into Pakistan near CHILLAR in the Dardistan region.
Major tributaries of Indus are the SHYOK, THE GILGIT, THE ZASKAR,
THE HUNZA, THE NUBRA, THE SHIGAR, THE GASTING, AND THE DRAS in the
upper part.
In the lower part, the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab, and the Jhelum are the
major tributaries of the Indus.
Finally, the Indus discharges into the Arabian Sea near Karachi in Pakistan.

 THE JHELUM---
 An important tributary of the Indus, rises from a spring at VERINAG situated at the
foot of the PIR PANJAL.
The Jhelum flows through Srinagar and the WULAR LAKEbefore entering into
Pakistan.
Jhelum joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.

 THE CHENAB---

Formed by two streams i.e. THE CHANDRA AND THE BHAGA, the Chenab is the
largest tributary of the Indus.
Chenab is also known as CHANDRABHAGA.
Originating from the ROHTANG PASS IN THE KULLU HILLS OF HIMACHAL PRADESH.

 RAVI

Ravi Originating from THE BEAS KUND NEAR THE ROHTANG PASS.
Beas enters into the Punjab plains and meets with the Satluj near Harike.
 Beas enters into the Punjab plains and meets with THE SATLUJ NEAR HARIKE.

 SATLUJ RIVER---

Also popular as LANGCHEN KHAMBAB (in Tibet), the Satluj originates from
the RAKAS LAKEN NEAR MANSAROVAR at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet.
The Satluj passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges.
Feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.

 THE GANGA

 Originates from the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi
district of Uttarakhand.
 When originates known as - BHAGIRATHI.
 At DEVPRAYAG = Bhagirathi + Alaknanda = The Ganga.

 THE ALAKNANDA

 Originates from the SATOPANTH GLACIER above Badrinath.

 The major tributaries of the Alaknanda are the

DHAULI AND THE VISHNU GANGA- meet at JOSHIMATH/VISHNU

PRAYAG.
PINDAR - Joins at KARNA PRAYAG.
MANDAKINI OR KALI GANGA - Joins at RUDRA PRAYAG.

 The total length of the Ganga in India is 2,525 km----

Uttarakhand (110 km)

Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km) – Highest.
Bihar (445 km)- Third Highest
West Bengal (520 km).

 The Ganga river system-- largest river system in India.

 Right Bank Tributory – Son, Yamuna.

 Left Bank Tributory-

Ramgamga
Gomti
Ghaghara
Gandak
Kosi
Mahananda
 YAMUNA RIVER ---

---YAMUNA RIVER

 Originats- Yamunotri glacier (Banderpunch range).

 Yamuna is the longest tributary of the Ganga.
 Joins Ganga at Allahabad (Prayag), Uttar Pradesh.
 The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, and the Ken are the right bank tributaries of the
Yamuna and the Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc. are the left bank
tributaries.

 THE CHAMBAL

 Rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh.

 The Chambal is famous for its badland topography, known as the CHAMBAL RAVINES.

--- CHAMBAL RAVINES

 THE GANDAK

 Originating from the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount
Everest.
 Gandak consists of two streams-KALIGANDAK AND TRISHULGANGA.
 Gandak joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna, Bihar.

 THE GHAGHARA
 originates from the MAPCHACHUNGO GLACIERSand joins the Ganga at
Chhapra, Bihar.

 THE KOSI
 Originates from the north of Mount Everest in Tibet where it is known as the Arun.
 Originating from the Garhwal hills near Gairsain, the Ramganga joins the Ganga
near Kannauj.
 THE DAMODAR
 Chottanagpur plateau, where it flows through a rift valley and finally joins
the Hugli.
 The Barakar is the main tributary of the Damodar.

 THE SARDA OR SARYU RIVER

 Milam glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where it is known as the Goriganga.
 Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called as Kali or Chauk, where it joins
the Ghaghara.
 Originating from the DARJEELING HILLS, the MAHANANDA joins the Ganga as its last
left bank tributary in West Bengal.
 Originating from the AMARKANTAK PLATEAU, the Son is a large south bank tributary
of the Ganga; it joins the Ganga at Arrah, Bihar.

 THE BRAHMAPUTRA

 Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar Lake.

 In Tibet, the Brahmaputra is known as the TSANGPO (MEANS ‘THE
PURIFIER’).
 The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary of the Brahmaputra in
Tibet.
 The Brahmaputra enters into India near the west of Sadiya town in Arunachal
Pradesh.
 Major left bank tributaries - LOHIT, DIBANG OR SIKANG, BURHI
DIHING, & DHANSARI.
 Major right bank tributaries - SUBANSIRI, KAMENG, MANAS, AND SANKOSH.
 The Tista joins the Brahmaputra on its right bank in Bangladesh and from
here, the river is known as the Yamuna.
 Finally, the Brahmaputra merges with the river Padma and falls in the Bay of
Bengal.
 PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM

 Older than the Himalayan Rivers.

 THE MAHANADI ORIGINATESfrom SIHAWA IN RAIPUR DISTRICT OF

CHHATTISGARHand runs through Madhya Pradesh and Odisha and finally
discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal.
 Popularly known as the DAKSHIN GANGA, the Godavari is the largest peninsular
river system.
 THE GODAVARI ORIGINATES from NASIK DISTRICT OF MAHARASHTRAand
discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal.
 TRIBUTARIES OF GODAVARI------------
THE PENGANGA,
THE INDRAVATI,
THE PRANHITA,
MANJRA.

 THE KRISHNA

 Originates- MAHABALESHWAR IN SAHYADRI(SATARA DISTRICT MAHARASHTRA).

 TRIBUTARIES---- KTB
KOYNA
TUNGABHADRA
BHIMA

 THE KAVERI
 Originates - BRAHMAGIRI HILLS (KOGADU DISTRICT OF KARNATAKA).
 MAJOR TRIBUTARIES---- KAB
KABINI
 BHAVANI
AMRAVATI
 THE NARMADA

 Originates - AMARKANTAK PLATEAU.

 Flowing through a rift valley-
SATPURA in the south
VINDHYA Range in the north
 Narmada forms DHUANDHAR WATERFALLand a picturesque gorge of marble
rocks nearby Jabalpur.
 Narmada finally empties into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of
Gujarat.
 TAPI RIVER -
 Originating -- BETUL DISTRICT OF MADHYA PRADESH.
 West flowing river- Drains into Arabian Sea.
 LUNI RIVER

 Longest river system of Rajasthan.

 Originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli range, Rajasthan in two
branches---
SARASWATI
SABARMATI
 Which join each other at Govindgarh. From here, the river is known as Luni.
 Luni finally debouches into the Arabian Sea nearby the Rann of Kachchh.

 Some small rivers flowing towards the West are the Shetruniji, the Bhadra,
Dhadhar, Sabarmati, Mahi, Vaitarna, Kalinadi, Dedti, Sharavati, Mandovi, Juari,
Bharathapuzha, Periyar, etc.
 Some small rivers flowing towards the East are Subarnarekha, Baitarni, Brahmani,
Penner, and Palar.

 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HIMALAYAN RIVERS AND PENINSULAR RIVERS ---

CHARACTERISTIC HIMALAYAN RIVER PENINSULAR RIVER
S
PLACE OF ORIGIN Himalayan mountains (covered Peninsular plateau and central
with glaciers). highland.

NATURE OF FLOW Perennial; receive water from Seasonal; dependent on monsoon

glacier and rainfall. rainfall.
TYPE OF DRAINAGE Antecedent and consequent Super imposed, rejuvenated
leading to dendritic pattern in resulting in trellis, radial, and
plains. rectangular patterns.

NATURE OF RIVER Long course, flowing through the Smaller, fixed course with well-
rugged mountains experiencing adjusted valleys.
head ward erosion and river
capturing; In plains, meandering
and shifting off course.
CATCHMENT AREA Very large basin. Relatively smaller basin.

AGE OF THE RIVER Young and youthful, active and Old rivers with graded profile, and
deepening in the valleys have almost reached their base
levels.

CLIMATE

 CLIMATE- refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a
large area fora long period of time (more than thirty years).
 WEATHERrefers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point of
time.

 NOTE—
 The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘MAUSIM’ which literally means season.
 ‘Monsoon’ refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction during a year.
 Climate of India – Monsoon Type.

 CLIMATIC CONTROLS
There are six major controls of the climate of any place ---
LATITUDE
ALTITUDE
PRESSURE AND WIND SYSTEM
DISTANCE FROM THE SEA (CONTINENTALITY),
OCEAN CURRENTS
RELIEF FEATURES.
  Airtemperature generally decreases from theequator towards the poles.
 As one goes fromthe surface of the earth to higher altitudes,the atmosphere
becomes less dense andtemperature decreases.
 The pressure andwind system of any area depend on thelatitude and altitude of
the place. Thus itinfluences the temperature and rainfallpattern.
 The sea exerts a moderating influence on climate.
 As the distance from the seaincreases, its moderating influence decreasesand
the people experience extreme weatherconditions. This condition is known
ascontinentality (i.e. very hot during summersand very cold during winters).
 Ocean currentsalong with onshore winds affect the climate ofthe coastal areas.
 Finally, relief too plays a major role indetermining the climate of a place. High
mountainsact as barriers for cold or hot winds; they mayalso cause precipitation
if they are high enoughand lie in the path of rain-bearing winds.
 Theleeward side of mountains remains relatively dry.

 FACTORS AFFECTING INDIA’S CLIMATE

LATITUDE

 Area lying South of Tropic of Cancer – TROPICAL AREA.

  North of the Tropic-- SUB-TROPICS.
 Therefore, India’s climate has characteristics oftropical as well as subtropical
climates.

ALTITUDE
 India has mountains to the north, which havean average height of about 6,000
metres.
 Indiaalso has a vast coastal area where themaximum elevation is about 30 metres.
 TheHimalayas prevent the cold winds from CentralAsia from entering the
subcontinent.
 It isbecause of these mountains that thissubcontinent experiences
comparativelymilder winters as compared to central Asia.

PRESSURE AND WINDS

 The climate and associated weather conditionsin India are governed by the
followingatmospheric conditions:
• Pressure and surface winds;
• Upper air circulation; and
• Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones.

 India lies in the region of north easterly winds. These winds originate from
thesubtropical high-pressure belt of the northernhemisphere. They blow
southwards, getdeflected to the right due to the Coriolis force,and move towards
the equatorial low-pressurearea. Generally, these winds carry littlemoisture as they
originate and blow over land.Therefore, they bring little or no rain.

LOW PRESSURE OVER INDIAN SUB- HIGH PRESSURE OVER INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT
CONTINENT
  CORIOLIS FORCE:An apparent force caused by the earth’s rotation. The Coriolis
force is responsible for deflecting winds towards the right in the northern
hemisphere and towards the left in the southern hemisphere. This is also known as
‘FERREL’S LAW’.

--- CORIOLIS FORCE EFFECT.

The pressure and wind conditions overIndia are unique. During winter, there is a high-
pressure area north of the Himalayas. Cold dry winds blow from this region to the low-
pressure areas over the oceans to the south.

In summer, a low-pressure area develops over interior Asia, as well as, overNorth-western
India. This causes a complete reversal of the direction of winds during summer. Air moves
from the high-pressure area over the southern Indian Ocean, in aSouth-
easterlydirection, crosses the equator, and turns right towards the low-pressure areas
over the Indian subcontinent. These are known as the Southwest Monsoon winds.

These winds blow over the warm oceans, gather moisture and bring widespread rainfall
over the mainland of India. The upper air circulation in this region is dominated by a
westerly flow.

An important component of this flow is the jet stream. These jet streams are located
approximately over 27°-30° north latitude, therefore, they are known as subtropical
westerly jet streams. Over India, these jet streams blow south of theHimalayas, all
through the year except in summer.

WINTER SEASON JET STREAM SUMMER SEASON JET STREAM

THE WESTERN CYCLONIC DISTURBANCES

Experienced in the north and north-western partsof the country are brought in by this
westerlyflow. In summer, the subtropical westerly jet stream moves north of the Himalayas
with theapparent movement of the sun. An easterly jetstream, called the sub-tropical
easterly jet streamblows over peninsular India, approximately over14°N during the
summer months.

JET STREAM:
These are a narrow belt of highaltitude (above 12,000 m) westerly winds in the
troposphere. Their speed varies from about 110 km/h in summer to about 184 km/h in
winter. A number of separate jet streams have been identified. The most constant are the
mid-latitude and the sub-tropical jet stream.

WESTERN CYCLONIC DISTURBANCES

The western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena of the winter months brought
in by the westerly flow from the Mediterranean region. They usually influence the weather
of the north and north-western regions of India.

THE INDIAN MONSOON

The monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° S.

TO UNDERSTAND THE MECHANISM OF THE MONSOONS, THE FOLLOWING FACTS ARE IMPORTANT---

(a) The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on
thelandmass of India while the seas aroundexperience comparatively high pressure.
(b) The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer, overthe
Ganga plain (this is the equatorial troughnormally positioned about 5°N of theequator. It is
also known as the monsoontroughduring the monsoon season).
(c) The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at20°S over
the Indian Ocean. The intensityand position of this high-pressure areaaffects the Indian
Monsoon.
(d) The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results instrong
vertical air currents and theformation of low pressure over the plateauat about 9 km above
sea level.
(e) The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and
thepresence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula duringsummer.

INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE

The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a broad trough of low pressure in equatorial
latitudes. This is where the northeast and the southeast trade winds converge.
This convergence zone lies more or less parallel to the equator but moves north or south
with the apparent movement of the sun.

It has also been noticed that changes in the pressure conditions over the SOUTHERN
OCEANS also affect the monsoons. Normally when the tropical eastern South Pacific Ocean
experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. But
in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has
lower pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian Ocean. This periodic change in
pressureconditions is known as the SOUTHERNOSCILLATION OR SO.

A feature connected with the SO is the El Nino phenomenon in which a warm ocean current that flows
past the Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold Peruvian current, every 2 to 5 years. The changes in
pressure conditions are connected to the El Nino. Hence, the phenomenon is referred to as ENSO (EL
NINO SOUTHERN OSCILLATIONS).
THE ONSET OF THE MONSOON AND WITHDRAWAL

The duration of the monsoon is between 100-120 days from early June to mid-
September.Around the time of its arrival, the normalrainfall increases suddenly and
continuesconstantly for several days. This is known as the ‘burst’of the monsoon, and can
be distinguished from the pre-monsoon showers.

The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula generally by the first week
of June. Subsequently, it proceeds into two – the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal
branch.The Arabian Sea and the Bayof Bengal branches of the monsoon merge overthe
north-western part of the Ganga plains.

Withdrawal or the retreat of the monsoonis a more gradual process. Thewithdrawal of the
monsoon begins inNorth-western states of India by earlySeptember. By mid-October, it
withdrawscompletely from the northern half of thepeninsula. The withdrawal from the
southernhalf of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By earlyDecember, the monsoon has
withdrawn fromthe rest of the country.
 NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

Natural vegetation refers to a plant community, which has grown naturally without human
aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. This is termed as a virgin
vegetation.

The virgin vegetation, which are purely Indian are known as endemic or indigenous
species but those which have come from outside India are termed as exotic plants.

Flora - Plants of a particular region or period.

Fauna- Species of animals of a particular region or period.

TYPES OF VEGETATION
The following major types of vegetation may be identified in our country-
(i) - Tropical Evergreen Forests
(ii)- Tropical Deciduous Forests
(iii)- Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
(iv)- Montane Forests
(v)- Mangrove Forests
 TROPICAL EVERGREEN FORESTS
 These forests are restricted to heavy rainfall areas—
Western Ghats
Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar
Upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu coast.
 Rainfall more than - 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season.
 The trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above.
 It has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds — trees, shrubs and creepers giving it
a multi-layered structure.
 There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves. As such, these forests appear
green all the year round.
 Important tree of this forest are -- EBONY, MAHOGANY, ROSEWOOD, RUBBER AND

CINCHONA.

 TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS

Most widespread forests of India.
Also called Monsoon forests
Rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm.
Shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks in dry summer.
  On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into—
Moist deciduous
Dry deciduous.
 The former is found in areas receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm.
 Exists mostly in the eastern part of the country — north-eastern states, along the
foothills of the Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Odisha and Chhattisgarh, and on the
eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.
 TEAK IS THE MOST DOMINANT SPECIES OF THIS FOREST.
 BAMBOOS, SAL, SHISHAM, SANDALWOOD, KHAIR, KUSUM, ARJUN AND MULBERRY ARE OTHER
COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT SPECIES.

THE DRY DECIDUOUS FORESTS- Rainfall between 100 cm and 70 cm. These forests are
found in the rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh. There are open stretches, in which TEAK, SAL, PEEPAL AND NEEM GROW.

 THE THORN FORESTS AND SCRUBS

 In regions with less than 70 cm of rainfall - thorny trees and bushes. This type of
vegetation is found in the north-western part of the country, including semi-arid areas
of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.

 Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species.
Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to
get moisture.
The stems are succulent to conserve water.
Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimise evaporation.
These forests give way to thorn forests and scrubs in arid areas.
 (TROPICAL THRON FOREST AND SCRUB)

 MONTANE FORESTS
In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude
leads to the corresponding change in natural vegetation.
Succession of natural vegetation belts- Tropical to the Tundra region.

 MANGROVE FORESTS
 The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides.
Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged
under water.
The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavari and the
Kaveri are covered by such vegetation.
In the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, SUNDARI trees are found, which provide durable
hard timber.

INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT –2019

 Recently, the MINISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENT, FOREST AND CLIMATE CHANGE released the
biennial “INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT (ISFR)-2019.
 The report provides information on forest cover, tree cover, mangrove cover, growing stock inside
and outside the forest areas, carbon stock in India’s forests, Forest Types and Biodiversity, Forest Fire
monitoring and forest cover in different slopes & altitudes.
 ABOUT THE INDIA STATE OF FOREST REPORT (ISFR)

 The report is published by the FOREST SURVEY OF INDIA (FSI).

 STARTING FROM1987, 15 assessments have been completed so far. ISFR 2019 is the 16TH REPORT
IN THE SERIES.

 MAJOR FINDINGS

TOTAL FOREST COVER

 The total FOREST COVER of the country is 7,12,249 SQ KM which is 21.67% OF THE
GEOGRAPHICAL AREA of the country.
 The TREE COVER of the country is estimated as 95,027 SQ KM which is 2.89% OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL
AREA.
 The total Forest and Tree cover of the country is 8,07,276 SQ KM which is 24.56% OF THE
GEOGRAPHICAL AREA OF THE COUNTRY.
 It shows an increase of 3,976 sq km (0.56%) of forest cover, 1,212 sq km (1.29%) of tree cover and
5,188 sq km (0.65%) OF FOREST AND TREE COVER PUT TOGETHER, at the national level as
compared to the ISFR 2017.

FOREST COVER IN STATES

 Area-wise Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country followed by Arunachal
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Maharashtra.
 The top five States in terms of increase in forest cover are Karnataka (1,025 sq km), Andhra
Pradesh (990 sq km), Kerala (823 sq km), Jammu & Kashmir (371 sq km) and Himachal
Pradesh (334 sq km).
 In terms of forest cover as percentage of total geographical area, the top five States
are Mizoram (85.41%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%), Meghalaya (76.33%), Manipur (75.46%)
and Nagaland (75.31%).

FOREST COVER IN NORTH EAST REGION

 Total forest cover in the North Eastern region is 1,70,541sq km, which is 65.05% of its geographical
area. The current assessment shows a decrease of forest cover to the extent of 765 sq km (0.45%) in
the region. Except Assam and Tripura, all the States in the region show decrease in forest cover.
 MANGROVE

 Mangrove cover in the country has increased by 54 sq km (1.10%) as compared to the previous
assessment.
 Top three states showing mangrove cover increase are Gujarat (37 sq km) followed
by Maharashtra (16 sq km) and Odisha (8 sq km).

WETLANDS

 There are 62,466 wetlands covering 3.83% of the area within the Recorded Forest Area/Green
Wash(RFA/GW) of the country.
 The total number of wetlands located within the RFA/GW is 8.13%. Amongst the States, Gujarat has
largest area of wetlands within RFA in the country followed by West Bengal.

FOREST COVER
Forest cover includes all tree patches which have canopy DENSITY MORE THAN 10% and area of 1 ha or
more in size, irrespective of their legal status and species composition.

RECORDED FOREST AREA

Recorded Forest Area is used for all such LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN NOTIFIED AS FOREST UNDER
ANY GOVERNMENT ACT OR RULES or recorded as 'forest' in the Government records. Recorded forest
area may or may not have forest cover.

GREEN WASH
The extent of wooded areas generally shown in light green colour on the Survey. The green wash has
been used as substitute to RFA in respect of those States and UTs from where the usable digitized
boundaries of recorded forest areas could not be made available to FSI.
FOREST SURVEY OF INDIA (FSI)

HEADQUARTERS: DEHRADUN, UTTARAKHAND.

Established in 1981, it is a premier national organization responsible for ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING
OF THE FOREST RESOURCES of the country on regular basis.

The NATIONAL COMMISSION ON AGRICULTURE (1976), in its report recommended for the creation of a
National Forest Survey Organization for a regular, periodic and comprehensive forest resources survey of the
country leading to creation of FSI.

 LIST OF BIRD SANCTUARIES IN INDIA

 BIOSPHERE RESERVES OF INDIA
 The Indian government has established 18 biosphere reserves(categories roughly
correspondingly to IUCN Category V Protected areas) to protect larger areas of natural
habitat than a typical national park or animal sanctuary, and that often include one or
more national parks or reserves, along with buffer zones that are open to some
economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected
region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of
life.

 WORLD NETWORK

Tweleve of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the WORLD NETWORK OF
BIOSPHERE RESERVES, based on the UNESCO MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE (MAB) Programme
list

 LIST OF BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA

S.N
NAME STATE KEY FAUNA
O
NILGIRI BIOSPHERE TAMIL NILGIRI TAHR, TIGER, LION-TAILED
1
RESERVE NADU, KERALA AND KARNATAKA MACAQUE
NANDA DEVI BIOSPHERE
2 UTTARAKHAND SNOW LEOPARD, HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR
RESERVE
3 GULF OF MANNAR TAMIL NADU DUGONG
4 NOKREK MEGHALAYA RED PANDA
5 SUNDARBANS WEST BENGAL ROYAL BENGAL TIGER
ASIATIC ELEPHANT, TIGER, ASSAM
6 MANAS ASSAM ROOFED TURTLE, HISPID HARE, GOLDEN
LANGUR, PYGMY HOG
GAUR, ROYAL BENGAL TIGER, ASIAN
7 SIMLIPAL ODISHA
ELEPHANT
8 DIHANG-DIBANG ARUNACHAL PRADESH MISHMI TAKIN, MUSK DEER
PACHMARHI BIOSPHERE
9 MADHYA PRADESH GIANT SQUIRREL, FLYING SQUIRREL
RESERVE
ACHANAKMAR- FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE, INDIAN WILD
10 AMARKANTAK BIOSPHERE MADHYA PRADESH, CHHATTISGARH DOG, SARUS CRANE, WHITE-RUMPED
RESERVE VULTURE, SACRED GROVE BUSH FROG
11 GREAT RANN OF KUTCH GUJARAT INDIAN WILD ASS
12 COLD DESERT HIMACHAL PRADESH SNOW LEOPARD
13 KHANGCHENDZONGA SIKKIM SNOW LEOPARD, RED PANDA
AGASTHYAMALAI
14 KERALA, TAMIL NADU NILGIRI TAHR, ASIAN ELEPHANT
BIOSPHERE RESERVE
15 GREAT NICOBAR ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS SALTWATER CROCODILE
WHITE-WINGED WOOD DUCK, WATER
16 DIBRU-SAIKHOWA ASSAM BUFFALO, BLACK-BREASTED PARROTBILL,
TIGER, CAPPED LANGUR
17 SESHACHALAM HILLS ANDHRA PRADESH SLENDER LORIS
18 PANNA MADHYA PRADESH
UNESCO MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE (MAB)
 Land withinthe political boundaries and oceanic areaup to 12 NAUTICAL MILES (22.2
KM) FROM THE COAST TERMED AS TERRITORIAL WATERand resourcestherein
belong to the nation.
 The oceanic resources beyond 200 NAUTICAL MILES OF THE EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC
ZONEbelong to open ocean and no individualcountry can utilise these without
theconcurrence of international institutions.

 THE INTERNATIONAL SEABED AUTHORITY (ISA) -is an intergovernmental

body based in Kingston, Jamaica, that was established to organize, regulate and
control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the
limits of national jurisdiction (referred to as "the Area" , an area underlying most
of the world's oceans. It is an organization established by the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea.

 POTENTIAL RESOURCES: Resources which arefound in a region, but have not

been utilised.
 DEVELOPED RESOURCES: Resources which are surveyed and their quality and
quantity have been determined for utilisation.
 STOCK: Materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy human
needs but human beings do not have the appropriate technology to access
these, are included among stock. For example, water is a compound of two
gases; hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen can be used as a rich source of energy.
But we do not have advanced technical ‘know-how’ to use it for this purpose.
Hence, it can be considered asstock.
 RESERVESare the subset of the stock, which can be put into use with the help
of existing technical ‘know-how’ but their use has not been started.
 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable economic development means‘development should take place
withoutdamaging the environment, and developmentin the present should not
compromise with theneeds of the future generations.’

 RIO DE JANEIRO EARTH SUMMIT, 1992

 In June 1992- first International Earth Summit.
 Environmental protection and socioeconomic development at the global level.
  The assembled leaders signed the DECLARATION ON GLOBAL CLIMATIC CHANGE AND

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY.

 The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda
21 for achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century.

 AGENDA 21
 It is the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the UNITED NATIONS
CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT (UNCED) , which took
place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
 Itaims at achieving global sustainabledevelopment.
 It is an agenda to combatenvironmental damage, poverty, diseasethrough
global co-operation on commoninterests, mutual needs and
sharedresponsibilities.
 One major objective of theAgenda 21 is that every local governmentshould
draw its own local Agenda 21.

At the international level, the CLUB OF ROME advocated resource conservation for the first time in a more systematic way in
1968. Subsequently, in 1974, Gandhian philosophy was once again presented by Schumacher in his book Small is
Beautiful. The seminal contribution with respect to resource conservation at the global level was made by the Brundtland
Commission Report, 1987. This report introduced the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated it as a means for
resource conservation, which was subsequently published in a book entitled Our Common Future. Another significant
contribution was made at the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992.

 SOIL AS A RESOURCE
CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS---

ALLUVIAL SOILS
Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile.Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of
potash, phosphoric acid and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy,
wheat and other cereal and pulse crops. Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline and can
be productive after proper treatment and irrigation.

BLACK SOIL
These soils are black in colour and are alsoknown as Regur soils. Black soil is ideal for
growing cotton and is also known as blackcotton soil. It is believed that climatic condition
along with the parent rock material are theimportant factors for the formation of blacksoil.
This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over northwest
Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows.
They are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and
lime. These soils are generally poor inphosphoric contents.

RED AND YELLOW SOILS

Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocksin areas of low rainfall in the eastern and
southern parts of the Deccan plateau. Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain and along the piedmont
zone of the Western Ghats. These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of
iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It looksyellow when it occurs in a
hydrated form.
LATERITE SOIL
 Laterite has been derived from the Latin word ‘later’ which means brick.
 The laterite soildevelops under tropical and subtropical climate with alternate
wet and dry season.
 This soil is the result of intense leaching dueto heavy rain.
 Lateritic soils are mostly deepto very deep, acidic (pH<6.0), generallydeficient
in plant nutrients and occur mostlyin southern states.
 After adopting appropriatesoil conservation techniques particularly inthe hilly areas
of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, this soil is very useful for growing tea and
coffee, cashew nut.

 ARID SOILS
 They are generally sandy in texture and salinein nature.
 Due to the dry climate,high temperature, evaporation is faster andthe soil lacks
humus and moisture. The lowerhorizons of the soil are occupied by Kankarbecause
of the increasing calcium contentdownwards.

 FOREST SOILS
 These soils are found in the hilly andmountainous areas where sufficient
rainforests are available. The soils texture variesaccording to the mountain
environmentwhere they are formed.
 ENDANGERED SPECIES:
 These are specieswhich are in danger of extinction. Thesurvival of such
species is difficult if thenegative factors that have led to a declinein their
population continue to operate. Theexamples of such species are black
buck, crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion tailed macaque,
sangai (brow anter deer in Manipur), etc.
 VULNERABLE SPECIES:
 These are specieswhose population has declined to levels fromwhere it is
likely to move into the endangeredcategory in the near future if the
negativefactors continue to operate. The examplesof such species are blue
sheep, Asiaticelephant, Gangetic dolphin, etc.
 RARE SPECIES:
 Species with smallpopulation may move into the endangeredor vulnerable
category if the negative factorsaffecting them continue to operate.
Theexamples of such species are the Himalayanbrown bear, wild Asiatic
buffalo, desert foxand hornbill, etc.
 ENDEMIC SPECIES:
 These are species whichare only found in some particular areasusually
isolated by natural or geographicalbarriers. Examples of such species are
theAndaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andamanwild pig, mithun in Arunachal
Pradesh.
 EXTINCT SPECIES:
 These are species whichare not found after searches of known orlikely areas
where they may occur. A speciesmay be extinct from a local area,
 region,country, continent or the entire earth.Examples of such species are
the Asiaticcheetah, pink head duck.

 “PROJECT TIGER”—

 One of the well-publicised wildlife campaigns in the world, was launched in

1973.
 There are 51tiger reserves in Indiawhich are governed by Project Tiger which is
administrated by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).The National
Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) was established in December 2005.
S. NO. TIGER RESERVE (YEAR OF CREATION) STATE

1 Bandipur (1973–74) Karnataka

2 Corbett (1973–74) Uttarakhand

3 Kanha (1973–74) Madhya Pradesh

4 Manas (1973–74) Assam

5 Melghat (1973–74) Maharashtra

6 Palamau (1973–74) Jharkhand

7 Ranthambore (1973–74) Rajasthan

8 Similipal (1973–74) Odisha

9 Sunderbans (1973–74) West Bengal

10 Periyar (1978–79) Kerala

11 Sariska (1978–79) Rajasthan

12 Buxa (1982–83) West Bengal

13 Indravati (1982–83) Chhattisgarh

14 Namdapha (1982–83) Arunachal Pradesh

15 Dudhwa (1987–88) Uttar Pradesh

16 Kalakad-Mundanthurai (1988–89) Tamil Nadu

17 Valmiki (1989–90) Bihar

18 Pench (1992–93) Madhya Pradesh

19 Tadoba-Andhari (1993–94) Maharashtra

20 Bandhavgarh (1993–94) Madhya Pradesh

21 Panna (1994–95) Madhya Pradesh

22 Dampa (1994–95) Mizoram

S. NO. TIGER RESERVE (YEAR OF CREATION) STATE

23 Bhadra (1998–99) Karnataka

24 Pench (1998–99) Maharashtra

25 Pakke or Pakhui (1999-2000) Arunachal Pradesh

26 Nameri (1999-2000) Assam

27 Satpura (1999-2000) Madhya Pradesh

28 Anamalai (2008–09) Tamil Nadu

29 Udanti-Sitanadi (2008–09) Chhattisgarh

30 Satkosia (2008–09) Odisha

31 Kaziranga (2008–09) Assam

32 Achanakmar (2008–09) Chhattisgarh

33 Dandeli-Anshi Tiger Reserve(Kali) (2008–09) Karnataka

34 Sanjay-Dubri (2008–09) Madhya Pradesh

35 Mudumalai (2008–09) Tamil Nadu

36 Nagarahole (2008–09) Karnataka

37 Parambikulam (2008–09) Kerala

38 Sahyadri (2009–10) Maharashtra

39 Biligiri Ranganatha Temple (2010–11) Karnataka

40 Kawal (2012–13) Telangana

41 Sathyamangalam (2013–14) Tamil Nadu

42 Mukandra Hills (2013–14) Rajasthan

43 Nawegaon-Nagzira (2013–14) Maharashtra

44 Nagarjunsagar Srisailam (1982–83) Andhra Pradesh

45 Amrabad (2014) Telangana

46 Pilibhit (2020) Uttar Pradesh

47 Bor (2014) Maharashtra

48 Rajaji (2015) Uttarakhand

49 Orang (2016) Assam

50 Kamlang (2016) Arunachal Pradesh

51 Srivilliputhur Meghamalai (2021) Tamil Nadu

(I) RESERVED FORESTS:Reserved forests areregarded as the most valuable as far

asthe conservation of forest and wildliferesources are concerned. Everything
restricted unless permitted.
 (II) PROTECTED FORESTS:Almost one-third of the total forest area is protected
forest, asdeclared by the Forest Department. Thisforest land are protected from any
furtherdepletion. Everything is permitted unless restricted.

At present, reserved forests and protected forests differ in one important way:
Rights to all activities like hunting, grazing, etc. in reserved forests are
banned unless specific orders are issued otherwise. In protected areas, rights
to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on
the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly from forest
resources or products.

(III) UNCLASSED FORESTS:These are other forests and wastelands belonging

toboth government and private individualsand communities.

DAMS AND RIVERS

Dam River State
Nagarjunasagar Krishna Telangana
Pochampad (Sri Ramasagar) Godavari Telangana
Srisailam Krishna A.P.
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Gujarat
Ukai Tapi Gujarat
Hirakud Mahanadi Orissa
Bhakra Nangal Sutlej Himachal Pradesh
Pong (Maharana Pratap Sagar) Beas Himachal Pradesh
Thein (Ranjit Sagar) Ravi Punjab
Baglihar Chenab Jammu & Kashmir
Chutak Suru Jammu & Kashmir
Panchet Damodar Jharkhand
Maithon Barakar Jharkhand
Tehri Bhagirathi Uttarakhand
Koyna Koyna Maharashtra
Mettur Kaveri Tamilnadu
Krishnaraja Sagar Kaveri Karnataka
Alamatti Krishna Karnataka
Mullaperiyar Periyar Kerala
Gandhisagar Chambal Madhya Pradesh
Nimoo Bazgo Indus Jammu & Kashmir
DAMS OF THE WORLD AND RIVERS
Dam River Country
Aswan Dam Nile Egypt
Jinping-I dam Yalong China
Three Gorges dam Yangtse China
Nurek dam Vakhsh Tajikistan
Itaipu dam Parana Brazil and Paraguay
Hoover dam Colorado U.S.A.

 Jhumming- Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland;

Pamlou- Manipur
Dipa - Bastar districtof Chhattishgarh.

Jhumming: The ‘slash and burn’ agricultureis known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and CentralAmerica,
‘Conuco’ in Venzuela, ‘Roca’ inBrazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’in Indonesia, ‘Ray’ in
Vietnam.
 In India, this primitive form of cultivationis called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in MadhyaPradesh,
‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh,‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha,‘Kumari’ in
Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in theHimalayan belt,
‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, and‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region.
Cropping Seasons

S. CROPPING
TIME PERIOD CROPS STATES
NO SEASON

1. Rabi Sown: October- Wheat, barley, Punjab, Haryana,

December peas, gram, Himachal Pradesh,
Harvested: mustard etc. Jammu and Kashmir,
April-June Uttarakhand and Uttar
Pradesh

2. Kharif Sown: June-July Rice, maize, Assam, West Bengal,

Harvested: jowar, bajra, tur, coastal regions of
September- moong, urad, Odisha, Andhra
October cotton, jute, Pradesh, Telangana,
groundnut, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
soybean etc. Maharashtra

3. Zaid Sown and Seasonal fruits, Most of the northern

harvested: vegetables, and northwestern
March-July fodder crops etc. states
(between Rabi
and Kharif)

 MAJOR CROPS
Major crops grownin India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea,coffee,
sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute,etc.
 RICE: Our country is the secondlargest producer of rice in the world afterChina.
It is a kharif crop which requires hightemperature, (above 25°C) and high
humiditywith annual rainfall above 100 cm. West Bengal holds 1 st ranking in rice
production among states.
  WHEAT: Thisrabi crop requires a cool growing season anda bright sunshine at the
time of ripening. Itrequires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenlydistributedover the
growing season. Thereare two important wheat-growing zones in thecountry – the
Ganga-Satluj plains in thenorth-west and black soil region of the Deccan.
 India’s world ranking in Wheat production – 2nd.
 Indian state with largest wheat production – Uttar Pradesh.

 MILLETS: Jowar, bajra and ragi are theimportant millets grown in India. They havevery high
nutritional value. For example, ragiis very rich in iron, calcium.

JOWAR- It is a rain-fed crop mostlygrown in the moist areas which hardly needsirrigation. Major
Jowar producing States areMaharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradeshand Madhya Pradesh.
 BAJRA- grows well on sandy soils andshallow black soil. Major Bajra producingStates are
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.

MAIZE: It is a kharif crop whichrequires temperature between 21°C to 27°Cand grows well in old
alluvial soil. In somestates like Bihar maize is grown in rabi seasonalso. Major maize-producing
states areKarnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

PULSES: India is the largest producer as wellas the consumer of pulses in the world. Major
pulses that are grown in India aretur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram.Major pulse
producing statesin India are Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and
Karnataka.

 FOOD CROPS OTHER THAN GRAINS

SUGARCANE: It is a tropical as well as asubtropical crop. It grows well in hot

andhumid climate with a temperature of 21°C to27°C and an annual rainfall
between 75cm.and 100cm.India is the secondlargest producer of sugarcane
only afterBrazil. The majorsugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh,Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjaband Haryana. Uttar
Pradesh is the largest Sugarcane producing state in India.

OIL SEEDS:Mainoil-seeds produced in India are groundnut,mustard, coconut, sesamum

(til), soyabean,castor seeds, cotton seeds, linseed andsunflower. Groundnut is a kharif
crop and accountsfor about half of the major oilseeds producedin the country. Largest
producer of Ground nut in India- Gujarat.

 Linseed and mustard arerabi crops. Sesamum is a kharif crop in northand rabi crop in
south India. Castor seed isgrown both as rabi and kharif crop.
  TEA:Tea cultivation is an example ofplantation agriculture.The tea plant growswell in
tropical and sub-tropical climatesendowed with deep and fertile well-
drainedsoil, rich in humus and organic matter.

 Teabushes require warm and moist, frost-freeclimate all through theyear. Frequent
showersevenly distributed overthe year ensurecontinuous growth of tender leaves.
 Major teaproducingstates are Assam, hills of Darjeelingand Jalpaiguri districts, West
Bengal, TamilNadu and Kerala.

 COFFEE:
Indian coffee is known in the worldfor its good quality. The Arabica varietyinitially
brought from Yemen is produced inthe country. Initially its cultivation wasintroduced on
the Baba Budan Hills and eventoday its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiriin Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu.Karnataka is the largest coffee producing state in India.
 HORTICULTURE CROPS: India is thesecond largest producer of fruits andvegetables in the
world after China. India is aproducer of tropical as well as temperatefruits.

 NON-FOOD CROPS

 RUBBER:
It is an equatorial crop, but underspecial conditions, it is also grown in tropicaland sub-
tropical areas. It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm.
and temperature above 25°C.It is mainly grown in KERALA, TAMIL NADU, KARNATAKA AND
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS AND GARO HILLS OF MEGHALAYA.

 COTTON:
India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant. Cotton is one of the main raw
materials for cotton textile industry. India is the second largest producer of cotton
 after China. Cotton grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan
plateau. It requires high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free
days and bright sun-shine for its growth. It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8
months to mature. Major cotton-producing states are– Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar
Pradesh.

JUTE:
It is known as the golden fibre. Jute grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains
where soils are renewed every year. High temperature is required during the time of growth.
West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya are the major jute producing states.

MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES

WHAT IS A MINERAL?
Geologists define mineral as a“homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a
definable internal structure.”

 IRON ORE
India is rich in good quality iron ores.Magnetite is the finest iron ore with a veryhigh content
of iron up to 70 per cent. It hasexcellent magnetic qualities, especiallyvaluable in the
electrical industry. Hematiteore is the most important industrial iron orein terms of the
quantity used, but has slightly lower iron content than magnetite.

TYPES OF IRON ORE ---

 --- STATES SHARE IN IRON ORE
PRODUCTION.

THE MAJOR IRON ORE BELTS IN INDIA ARE:

• ODISHA-JHARKHAND BELT:
 Hematite ore is found inBADAMPAHAR MINES IN THE MAYURBHANJ AND
KENDUJHARdistricts.
 SINGBHUM DISTRICT OF JHARKHAND- Hematite iron ore- Gua and Noamundi.

 DURG-BASTAR-CHANDRAPUR BELT :
lies inChhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
Very highgrade HEMATITES are found in the famousBAILADILA RANGE OF HILLS
IN THE BASTAR DISTRICT OF CHHATTISGARH.
Iron ore from these mines isexported to Japan and South Korea viaVishakhapatnam
port.

 BALLARI-CHITRADURGA-CHIKKAMAGALURU-
TUMAKURU BELT IN KARNATAKA.
The KUDREMUKH MINES LOCATED IN THE WESTERN GHATS OF
KARNATAKAare a 100 per cent export unit. in the world.

 MAHARASHTRA-GOA BELT
Includes the stateof GOA AND RATNAGIRI DISTRICT of Maharashtra.
Iron ore is exported throughMarmagao port.
 MANGANESE
Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy.It is also
used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.

 NON-FERROUS MINERALS

COPPER
 Use- electronics and chemical industries.
 Region found in -- The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh,
Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Singhbhum district of
Jharkhand are leadingproducers of copper.
 Madhya Pradesh -- 53%
 Rajasthan - -43%
 Jharkhand - - 4%.
 BAUXITE

 Used in Aluminium making Industry.

 India’s bauxitedeposits are mainlyfound in the Amarkantak plateau,
Maikal hills and theplateau region of Bilaspur-Katni.
 Panchpatmalideposits in Koraput district are the mostimportant
bauxite deposits in the state.
 Largest Producer – Odisha.

 NON-METALLIC MINERALS
MICA
 Due to its excellentdi-electric strength, low power loss factor,insulating
properties and resistance to highvoltage, mica is one of the most
indispensableminerals used in electric and electronicindustries.
Region producing MICA - Chota Nagpur plateau
Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh belt – Jharkhand.
Rajasthan- Ajmer.
Nellore mica belt - Andhra Pradesh.

 ROCK MINERALS

LIMESTONE-- Calcium carbonates.

Found in Sedimentary rocks.
Limestone is the basic raw material for the cement industry and
essential for smelting iron ore in the blast furnace.
Largest Producer- Madhya Pradesh.

 ENERGY---

 CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY

 COAL :

Used for power generation.

Lignite is a low grade brown coal,which is soft with high moisture content.
Lignite reserves-- Neyveli in TamilNadu.
Coal that has been buried deepand subjected to increased temperatures
isbituminous coal.
Anthracite is the highest quality hard coal.

In India coal occurs in rock series of twomain geological ages—

 Gondwana deposits -- 200 million years.
 Tertiary deposits -- 55million years old.
 (NUCLEAR & THERMAL POWER PLANT IN INDIA)
 PETROLEUM

Most of the petroleum occurrences in Indiaare associated with

anticlines and fault trapsin the rock formations of the tertiary age.
Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam aremajor petroleum production
areas in India.
Ankeleshwar is themost important field of Gujarat.
Assam is theoldest oil producing state of India. Digboi,Naharkatiya
and Moran-Hugrijan are theimportant oil fields in the state.
  NATURAL GAS
Krishna-Godavari basin
Mumbai High
Gulf of Cambay
Andaman and Nicobar

--GAS RESEVES

--- TIDAL ENERGY IN INDIA.

 GEO- THERMAL ENCERGY

Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other is located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh.
 SECTOR-WISE GDP OF INDIA
 SERVICES SECTOR - 54.77%.
 INDUSTRY SECTOR - 27.48%.
 AGRICULTURE - 17.76%.

 The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in 1855 at Rishra. After Partition in
1947, thejute mills remained in India but three-fourth of the jute producing area
went to Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan).
 INDIA – LOCATION

 India’s territorial limitfurther extends towards the sea up to 12 nautical miles (about
21.9 km) from the coast.
 From north to south extremity is3,214 km, and that from east to west is only2,933 km.
 There is a general understanding among the countries of the world to select the
standardmeridian in multiples of 7°30' of longitude. That is why 82°30' E has been selected
as the‘standard meridian’ of India. Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time
by5 hours and 30 minutes.

--- INDIAN STATDARD TIME

 States through which IST passes- U.P., M.P., C.G., and ODISHA & ANDHRA
PARDESH.
 Country with largest no. of Time Zone – France (12 Time Zone).
 Country with longest Coast line -- Canada.
  Distance between two longitudes decreases towards the poles whereas the distance between
two latitudes remains the same everywhere.

 DIVISION OF EARTH INTO ZONES---

--- 28 STATES & 8 UTs.

 India with its area of 3.28 million sq. km accounts for 2.4 percent of the world’s land
surface area and stands as the seventh largest country in the world.
 MOUNTAIN PASSES IN INDIA
Name State Between/ Separating
Asirgarh Madhya Pradesh
Banihal Pass Jammu and Kashmir (Jammu, Kashmir) Jammu & Kashmir
Bara-lacha-la Himachal Pradesh
Bomdila Arunachal Pradesh
Changla Pass Jammu and Kashmir (Ladakh) Leh & Changthang
Chanshal Pass Himachal Pradesh
Diphu Pass Arunachal Pradesh
Dongkhala Sikkim
Fotu La Jammu and Kashmir (Ladakh)
Haldighati Pass Rajasthan
Indrahar Pass Himachal Pradesh
Jelep La Sikkim
Khardung La Jammu and Kashmir (Ladakh) Leh & Nubra
Karakoram Pass Jammu and Kashmir (Ladakh) Ladakh & Xinjiang
Lipulekh Pass Uttarakhand
Nathu La Sikkim Sikkim & Tibet
Palakkad Gap Kerala Kerala & Tamil Nadu
Shenkottai pass Kollam Kerala Travancore & Tamil Nadu
Rohtang Pass Himachal Pradesh Manali & Lahaul
Shipki La Himachal Pradesh
Bilafond La Jammu and Kashmir (Siachen Glacier)
Sin La Uttarakhand
Tanglang La Jammu and Kashmir (Ladakh)
Zojila Pass Jammu and Kashmir (Kashmir, Ladakh) Kashmir & Ladakh

 Peninsular part of India extends towardsthe Indian Ocean. This has provided thecountry
with a coastline of 6,100 km in themainland and 7,517 km in the entiregeographical coast
of the mainland plus theisland groups Andaman and Nicobar locatedin the Bay of Bengal
and the Lakshadweep inthe Arabian Sea.

- Total 09 states border Coast.

INDIA & ITS NEIGHBOURE COUNTRY ---

 AFGANISTAN
 PAKISTAN
 CHINA
 NEPAL
 BHUTAN
 MYANMAR
 BANGLDESH
 SRI LANKA
 MALDIVES

 Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait.

 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY

 Earth is approximately 460 million years old.

 India can be divided into three geological divisions ---
 The Peninsular Block.
 The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains.
 Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain.

 THE PENINSULAR BLOCK

The northern boundary of the PeninsularBlock may be taken as an irregular

linerunning from Kachchh along the western flankof the Aravali Range
near Delhi and thenroughly parallel to the Yamuna and the Gangaas far as the
Rajmahal Hills and the Gangadelta.
Apart from these, the Karbi Anglong andthe Meghalaya Plateau in the
northeast andRajasthan in the west are also extensions ofthis block. The
northeastern parts areseparated by the Malda fault in West
Bengalfrom the Chotanagpur plateau. In Rajasthan,the desert and other
desert–like featuresoverlay this block.
The Peninsula is formed by - Gneisses and Granites.
 Formed in Cambrian period.
As a part ofthe Indo-Australian Plate, it has been subjectedto various vertical
movements and blockfaulting. The rift valleys of the Narmada, theTapi and the
Mahanadi and the Satpura blockmountains are some examples of it.
ThePeninsula mostly consists of relict and residualmountains like the Aravali
hills, the Nallamalahills, the Javadi hills, the Veliconda hills, thePalkonda range
and the Mahendragiri hills, etc.

 PHYSIOGRAPHY
‘Physiography’ of an area is the outcome of structure, process and the stage of
development.

 Based on these macro variations, India canbe divided into the following
physiographicdivisions:

(1) The Northern and North-easternMountains

(2) The Northern Plain
(3) The Peninsular Plateau
(4) The Indian Desert
(5) The Coastal Plains
(6) The Islands.

 THE NORTH AND NORTHEASTERN MOUNTAINS

 The Himalayas consist of a series of parallelmountain ranges.
Orientation -- Northwest to Southeastdirection in the northwestern part of
India.Himalayas in the Darjiling and Sikkim regionslie in an east-west direction, while
in ArunachalPradesh they are from southwest to thenorthwest direction. In
Nagaland, Manipur andMizoram, they are in the north-south direction.
The approximate length of the Great Himalayan range, also known as the central
axial range, is 2,500 km from east to west, and their width varies between
160-400 km from north to south.

 HIMALAYAS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THE FOLLOWING SUB-DIVISIONS:

(I) KASHMIR OR NORTH-WESTERN HIMALAYAS

(II) HIMACHAL AND UTTARAKHAND HIMALAYAS
(III) DARJILING AND SIKKIM HIMALAYAS
(IV) ARUNACHAL HIMALAYAS
(V) EASTERN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS.

 Kashmir or North-western HimalayasIt comprise a series of ranges such as

theKARAKORAM, LADAKH, ZASKAR AND PIR PANJAL.
 Thenorth-eastern part of the Kashmir Himalayas is acold desert, which lies
between the GreaterHimalayas and the Karakoram ranges.
 Betweenthe Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal range,lies the world
famous valley of Kashmir and thefamous Dal Lake.
 Important glaciers of SouthAsia such as the BALTORO AND SIACHEN are
alsofound in this region.
 The Kashmir Himalayas arealso famous for KAREWA FORMATIONS,
which are usefulfor the cultivation of Zafran,a local variety of saffron.
 SOME OF THE IMPORTANT PASSES OF THE REGION ARE ZOJI LA ON THE GREAT
HIMALAYAS, BANIHAL ON THE PIR PANJAL, PHOTU LA ON THE ZASKAR AND

KHARDUNG LA ON THE LADAKH RANGE.

 Some of the important freshlakes such as Dal and Wular and salt water
lakessuch as Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri are also inthis region.
 This region is drained by the riverIndus, and its tributaries such as the
Jhelumand the Chenab. THE SOUTHERNMOST PART OF THIS REGION CONSISTS
OF LONGITUDINAL VALLEYS KNOWN AS ‘DUNS’. JAMMU DUN AND PATHANKOT DUN
ARE IMPORTANT EXAMPLES.

 THE HIMACHAL AND UTTARAKHAND HIMALAYAS

This part lies approximately between the RAVI IN THE WEST AND THE KALI (A

TRIBUTARY OF GHAGHARA) IN THE EAST . It is drained by two majorriver

systems of India, i.e. the Indus and theGanga. The northernmost part of
the HimachalHimalayas is an extension of the Ladakh colddesert, which
lies in the Spiti subdivision ofdistrict Lahul and Spiti. All the three ranges of
 Himalayas are prominent in this section also.
 These are the Great Himalayan range, the LesserHimalayas (which is locally known
asDhaoladhar in Himachal Pradesh and Nagtibhain Uttarakhand) and the Shiwalik
range fromthe North to the South.
 The two distinguishing features of thisregion from the point of view of
physiographyare the ‘Shiwalik’ and ‘Dun formations’.
 Someimportant duns located in this region are the Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh
dun, DehraDun, Harike dun and the Kota dun, etc.
 In the Great Himalayan range,the valleys are mostly inhabited by the BHOTIA’S. These
are nomadic groups whomigrate to ‘BUGYALS’ (THE SUMMER GLASSLANDS IN THE
HIGHER REACHES) during summer monthsand return to the valleys during winters.

---BUGYALS

 Thefamous ‘VALLEY OF FLOWERS’is also situated in thisregion. The places of

pilgrimage such as theGangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinathand Hemkund Sahib
are also situated in thispart.

--- VALLEY OF FLOWERS (U.K.)

 THE DARJILING AND SIKKIM HIMALAYAS

 They are flanked by NEPAL HIMALAYAS IN THE WEST AND BHUTAN
HIMALAYAS IN THE EAST. Known for its fast-flowingrivers such as TISTA, it is
a region of highmountain peaks like KANCHENJUNGA (KANCHENGIRI), and
deep valleys.
 The higherreaches of this region are inhabited by LEPCHA TRIBES.
 TEESTA RIVER LEPCHA TRIBES

 The British, taking advantage of thephysical conditions such as moderate

slope,thick soil cover with high organic content, welldistributed rainfall
throughout the year andmild winters, introduced tea plantations in thisregion.
 In place of theShiwaliks here, the ‘DUAR FORMATIONS’ areimportant, which
have also been used for thedevelopment of tea gardens.
 The Daurs are floodplains in the region around the Himalayas, in the
state of Assam in the north-east and in the north of West Bengal.

 THE ARUNACHAL HIMALAYAS

These extend from the east of the BHUTAN HIMALAYAS UP TO THE DIPHU PASS in the
east.
Important mountain peaks of the region areKANGTU AND NAMCHA BARWA.
Bhramaputra flows through a deep gorge aftercrossing NAMCHA BARWA.
Some of theimportant rivers are THE KAMENG, THE SUBANSIRI, THE
DIHANG, THE DIBANG AND THE LOHIT.
 An importantaspect of the Arunachal Himalayas is thenumerous ethnic tribal
community inhabitingin these areas.

 Some of the prominent onesfrom west to east are the ---

 MONPA,
 ABOR,
 MISHMI,
 NYISHI
 NAGAS.

 THE EASTERN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS

General alignment from theNORTH TO THE SOUTH DIRECTION.

They are knownby different local names. IN THE NORTH, THEY ARE KNOWN AS PATKAI

BUM, NAGA HILLS, THE MANIPUR HILLS AND IN THE SOUTH AS MIZO OR LUSHAI HILLS.
 The Barak isan important river in Manipur and Mizoram.

Manipur --- ‘LOKTAK’ LAKE.

Mizoram --- ‘MOLASSIS BASIN’--- which is made up ofsoft unconsolidated deposits.
Most of the riversin Nagaland form the tributary of theBrahmaputra.
Therivers in the eastern part of Manipur are thetributaries of Chindwin, which in turn
is atributary of the IRRAWADY OF MYANMAR.

 THE NORTHERN PLAINS

 The northern plains are formed by the alluvial deposits brought by the rivers –
 THE INDUS
 THE GANGA
 THE BRAHMAPUTRA

EXTENSION ---
3,200 km from the east to the west.
The average width -- 150-300 km.

 The maximum depth of alluvium depositsvaries between 1,000-2,000 m.

 FROM THE NORTH TO THE SOUTH, THESE CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE MAJOR
ZONES:

 The Bhabar,
 The Tarai
 The alluvial plains.

 The alluvial plains can befurther divided into the KHADAR AND THE BHANGAR.
 Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at
 the break-up of the slope. As a result of this,the streams and rivers coming from the
mountains deposit heavy materials of rocksand boulders, and at times, disappear in
thiszone.

--- BHABAR

 South of the Bhabar is the TARAI BELT,with an approximate width of 10-20 km

wheremost of the streams and rivers re-emergewithout having any properly
demarcatedchannel, thereby, creating marshy andswampy conditions known as the
Tarai.

 The south of Tarai is a belt consisting ofold and new alluvial deposits known as
theBHANGAR AND KHADAR respectively. Theseplains have characteristic features
of maturestage of fluvial erosional and depositionallandforms such as sand bars,
meanders, oxbowlakes and braided channels.
 TheBrahmaputra plains are known for theirriverine islands and sand bars. Most of
theseareas are subjected to periodic floods andshifting river courses forming
braided streams.The mouths of these mighty rivers also formsome of the largest
deltas of the world, the famous Sunderbans delta.
 The states of Haryana and Delhi forma water divide between the Indus and
theGanga river systems.

 THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

 Rising from the height of 150 m above the riverplains up to an ELEVATION OF 600-900m
is theirregular triangle known as the Peninsularplateau.
 Delhi ridge in the northwest, (extension of Aravalis), the Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir
range in the west and the Cardamom hills in the south constitute the outer extent of the
Peninsular plateau. However, an extension of this is also seen in the northeast, in the form
of Shillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau.
 ThePeninsular India is made up of a series ofpatland plateaus such as the
Hazaribaghplateau, the Palamu plateau, the Ranchiplateau, the Malwa plateau, the
Coimbatoreplateau and the Karnataka plateau, etc.
 Thisis one of the oldest and the most stablelandmass of India. The general elevation of
theplateau is from the west to the east, which isalso proved by the pattern of the flow of
rivers.
 On the basis of the prominent relieffeatures, the Peninsular plateau can be dividedinto
three broad groups:
(i) The Deccan Plateau
(ii) The Central Highlands
(iii) The Northeastern Plateau.

THE DECCAN PLATEAU

 This is bordered by the Western Ghats in thewest, Eastern Ghats in the east and
theSatpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills inthe north.

 Western Ghats are locally known by different names such as Sahyadri inMaharashtra,
Nilgiri hills in Karnataka andTamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills andCardamom hills in Kerala.
 ‘Anaimudi’ (2,695 m), the highest peak ofPeninsular plateau followed by
Dodabetta (2,637 m) on the Nilgiri hills.
 Southern Most Peak – Cardamom Peak.
 Some of the important ranges include—
 THE JAVADI HILLS,
 THE PALCONDA RANGE,
 THE NALLAMALA HILLS,
 THE MAHENDRAGIRI HILLS, ETC.
 The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet each other at the NILGIRI HILLs.

THE CENTRAL HIGHLANDS

 They are bounded to the west by the Aravali range. The Satpura range is formed by a
series of scarped plateaus on the south. It is a classic example of the relict mountainswhich
are highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges.
 The general elevation of the CentralHighlands ranges between 700-1,000 m abovethe
mean sea level.
 Most of thetributaries of the river Yamuna have their originin the Vindhyan and Kaimur
ranges. Banas isthe only significant tributary of the riverChambal that originates from the
Aravalli inthe west.
 An eastern extension of the CentralHighland is formed by the Rajmahal hills, tothe south of
which lies a large reserve ofmineral resources in the Chotanagpurplateau.

THE NORTHEASTERN PLATEAU

 In fact it is an extension of the main Peninsularplateau. It is believed that due to the
forceexerted by the northeastward movement of theIndian plate at the time of the
Himalayanorigin, a huge fault was created between theRajmahal hills and the Meghalaya
plateau.
 Later, this depression got filled up by thedeposition activity of the numerous rivers.
 Today, the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglongplateau stand detached from the mainPeninsular
Block. The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into three:---
 The GaroHills;
 The Khasi Hills;
 The Jaintia Hills,
 Named after the tribal groups inhabiting thisregion. An extension of this is also seen in
theKarbi Anglong hills of Assam. Similar to theChotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya
plateauis also rich in mineral resources like coal, ironore, sillimanite, limestone and
uranium.

INDIAN DESERT

 To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies theGreat Indian desert.

 It is a land of undulatingtopography dotted with longitudinal dunesand barchans.

 This region receives low rainfallbelow 150 mm per year; hence, it has aridclimate with low
vegetation cover. It is becauseof these characteristic features that this is alsoknown as
MARUSTHALI.
 It is believed that during the Mesozoic era, this region was under the sea.
 Someof the well pronounced desert land featurespresent here are mushroom rocks,
shifting dunes.
 Most of the riversin this region are ephemeral. The Luni riverflowing in the southern part of
the desert is ofsome significance.

THE COASTAL PLAINS

 On the basis of the location andactive geo-morphological processes, it can bebroadly

divided into two:
 The Western coastal plains
 The Eastern coastal plains.
 The western coastal plains are an exampleof submerged coastal plain. It is believed thatthe
city of Dwaraka which was once a part ofthe Indian mainland situated along the westcoast
is submerged under water.

 Because ofthis submergence it is a narrow belt andprovides natural conditions for the
development of ports and Harbours. Kandla,Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva,
 Marmagao,Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some of theimportant natural ports located along
thewest coast.

POSRT IN INDIA
 The rivers flowing through this coastalplain do not form any delta. The Malabarcoast has
got certain distinguishing featuresin the form of ‘Kayals’ (backwaters).

--- ‘KAYALS’ (BACKWATERS)

 As compared to the western coastal plainthe eastern coastal plain is broader and is
anexample of an emergent coast. There are welldevelopeddeltas here, formed by the
riversflowing eastward in to the Bay of Bengal.
 --- MAJOR DEATS ON THE EASTERN COAST OF INDIA

 Theseinclude the deltas of the Mahanadi, theGodavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri.
 Becauseof its emergent nature, it has less number ofports and harbours.
 The continental shelfextends up to 500 km into the sea, which makes it difficult
for the development of goodports and harbours.

 THE ISLANDS

 There are two major island groups in India –one in the Bay of Bengal and the other in
theArabian Sea.
 The entire group of island isdivided into two broad categories –

--- ANDAMAN & NICOBAR

 TheAndaman in the north and the Nicobar in thesouth.

  They are separated by a waterbodywhich is called the Ten degree channel.
 It isbelieved that these islands are an elevatedportion of submarine mountains.
 Barren Island, the only active volcano in Indiais also situated in the Nicobar Islands.
 These islands receiveconvectional rainfall and have an equatorialtype of vegetation.

BARRAN ISLAND SADDLE PEAK

 Some important mountain peaks in Andaman and Nicobar Islands ---
Saddle peak (North Andaman)
MountDiavolo (Middle Andaman)
Mount Koyob (South Andaman)
Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar)

 The islands of the Arabian Sea include Lakshadweep and Minicoy.

 The entire island group is built of coral deposits.
 There are approximately 36 islands
 Minicoy is the largest island.
 The entire group of islands is broadly divided by the Nine degree channel, north of which
is the Amini Island and to the south of the Canannore Island.

 DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The flow of water through well-definedchannels is known as ‘drainage’ and thenetwork of such
channels is called a‘drainage system’. The drainage patternof an area is the outcome of the
geologicaltime period, nature and structure of rocks, topography, slope, amount ofwater
flowing and the periodicity ofthe flow.
 A river drains the water collected from aspecific area, which is called its ‘catchment area’.
 An area drained by a river and its tributariesis called a drainage basin.

IMPORTANT DRAINAGE PATTERNS

 The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as “DENDRITIC”

the examplesof which are the rivers of northern plain.

--- DENDRITIC DRAINAGE PATTERN

 When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage pattern
is knownas ‘RADIAL’. The rivers originating from the AMARKANTAK RANGE
present a good example of it.

--- RADIAL DRAINAGE PATTERN

 When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary
tributariesjoin them at right angles, the pattern is known as ‘TRELLIS’.
 When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or depression,
the pattern is know as ‘CENTRIPETAL’.

--- CENTRIPRTAL DRAINAGE PATTERN

 The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the other is known as the
watershed.
 --- WATERSHED.
 The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets and rills
are often referred to as watersheds.
 There is, however, a slight difference between a river basin and a watershed. Watersheds
are small in area while the basins cover larger areas.

 INDIAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM MAY BE DIVIDED ON VARIOUS BASES. ON THE BASIS OF

DISCHARGE OF WATER (ORIENTATIONS TO THE SEA), IT MAY BE GROUPED INTO:

 THE ARABIAN SEA DRAINAGE

 THE BAY OF BENGAL DRAINAGE

 They are separated from each other through the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and the
Sahyadris.
 Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the
Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal.
  While 23 per cent comprising the Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Periyar
systems discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.

 ON THE BASIS OF THE SIZE OF THE WATERSHED, THE DRAINAGE BASINS OF INDIA
ARE GROUPED INTO THREE CATEGORIES:
 MAJOR RIVER BASINS with more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area.
 It includes 14 drainage basins such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi,
the Narmada, the Mahi, the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc.
 MEDIUM RIVER BASINS with catchment area between 2,000-20,000 sq. km
incorporating 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
 MINOR RIVER BASINS with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. km include fairly
good number of rivers flowing in the area of low rainfall.

---HIMALAYAN RIVER SYSTEM

--PENINSULAR-RIVER
SYSTEM

 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS OF INDIA

THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE

 - HIMALAYAN RIVER SYSTEM

 The Himalayan drainage system has evolved through a long geological history. It
mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus and the Brahmaputra river basins.
 Since these are fed both by melting of snow and precipitation, rivers of this system
are perennial.

--- GORGES. --- V-SHAPED

VALLEY.
 These rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out by the erosional activity
carried on simultaneously with the uplift of the Himalayas.
 Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form V-shaped valleys, rapids and
waterfalls in their mountainous course.

--- RAPIDS --- OX-BOW LAKE

 While entering the plains, they form depositional features like flat valleys, ox-bow
lakes, flood plains, braided channels, and deltas near the river mouth.
 --- BRAIDED CHANNELS --
DELTA

 In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is highly tortous, but over the
plains they display a strong meandering tendency and shift their courses frequently.
 River Kosi, also know as the ‘sorrow of Bihar’, has been notorious for frequently
changing its course.
 The Kosi brings huge quantity of sediments from its upper reaches and
deposits it in the plains. The course gets blocked, and consequently, the
river changes its course.

 EVOLUTION OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE

 Geologists believe that a mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed

the entire longitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards to
Sind, and finally discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab during the
Miocene period some 5-2 million years ago.
 It is opined that in due course of time Indo– Brahma river was dismembered into
three main drainage systems:
 The Indus and its five tributaries in the western part;
 The Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the central part;
 The stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan tributaries in the
eastern part.
 The dismemberment was probably due to the Pleistocene upheaval in the western
Himalayas, including the uplift of the POTWAR PLATEAU (DELHI RIDGE), which acted as
the water divide between the Indus and Ganga drainage systems.
 Likewise, the down-thrusting of the MALDA GAP area between the Rajmahal hills and the
Meghalaya plateau during the mid-pleistocene period, diverted the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.

THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE

 THE INDUS SYSTEM
 It is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. km (in
India it is 321, 289 sq. km) and a total length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km).
 The Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India. It
originates from a glacier near BOKHAR CHU (31°15' N latitude and 81°40' E longitude) in
the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m in the KAILASH MOUNTAIN RANGE.

 In Tibet, it is known as ‘SINGI KHAMBAN; OR LION’S MOUTH.

 After flowing in the northwest direction between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it passes
through Ladakh and Baltistan.
 It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and
Kashmir. It enters into Pakistan near Chilas in the Dardistan region.
 The Indus receives a number of Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the
Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras.
 It finally emerges out of the hills near Attock where it receives the Kabul river on its right
bank.
 The river flows southward and receives ‘Panjnad’ a little above Mithankot. The Panjnad is
the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi the
Chenab and the Jhelum. It finally discharges into Arabian Sea.
THE JHELUM

 Rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-
eastern part of the valley of Kashmir.
 It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan through a deep
narrow gorge.
 It joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan. The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus.
 It is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near
Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.
 Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.

THE RAVI

 It is another important tributary of the Indus.

 It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through
the Chamba valley of the state.

 THE BEAS
  Originating from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass.
 The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges a Kati and Largi in the
Dhaoladhar range.
 It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near Harike.

THE SATLUJ
 Originates in the ‘RAKSAS TAL’ NEAR MANSAROVAR in Tibet.
 Where it is known as LANGCHEN KHAMBAB. It passes through the Shipki La on
the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains.
 It is an antecedent river. It is a very important tributary as it feeds the canal system
of the Bhakra Nangal project.

THE GANGA SYSTEM

 It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district of

Uttarakhand. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi.
 AT DEVPRAYAG, THE BHAGIRATHI MEETS THE ALAKNANDA; hereafter, it is
known as the Ganga.
 The Alaknanda has its source in the SATOPANTH GLACIER above Badrinath.
  The Alaknanda consists of the DHAULI AND THE VISHNU Ganga which meet at
Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag.
 The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the PINDAR JOINS IT AT KARNA
PRAYAG while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag.

 The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.

 From here, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east and east before splitting
into two distributaries, namely the BHAGIRATHI AND THE PADMA.
 The river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar and West Bengal .

 The Son is its major right bank tributary.

 The important left bank tributaries are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the
Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda.
 The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal near the Sagar Island.
  The Yamuna, the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source in the
YAMUNOTRI GLACIER on the western slopes of BANDERPUNCH RANGE.
 It joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa
and the Ken on its right bank which originates from the Peninsular plateau while the
Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank.

THE CHAMBAL

 Rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows northwards
through a gorge up wards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar dam has been
constructed.
 The Chambal is famous for its bad land topography called the Chambal ravines.

THE GANDAK
 Comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga.
 It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the
central part of Nepal.
 It enters the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Ganga at Sonpur near
Patna.

THE GHAGHARA
 Originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo.
 After collecting the waters of its tributaries – Tila, Seti and Beri.
 The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally meets the Ganga at
Chhapra.

THE KOSI
  It is an antecedent river with its source to the north of Mount Everest in Tibet, where its
main stream Aruna rises.it is joined by the Son Kosi from the West and the Tamur Kosi from
the east.
 It forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the river Arun.

 The Ramganga is comparatively a small river rising in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain.
 It joins the Ganga near Kannauj.

THE DAMODAR

 Occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows through a rift
valley and finally joins the Hugli.
 The Barakar is its main tributary. Once known as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’, the Damodar has
been now tamed by the Damodar Valley corporation, a multipurpose project.

THE SARDA OR SARYU RIVER

 Rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where it is known as the Goriganga.
Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it joins the Ghaghara.

THE MAHANANDA
 Rising in the Darjiling hills. It joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.
 THE SON
 It is a large south bank tributary of the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak plateau.
 it reaches Arrah, west of Patna, to join the Ganga.

THE BRAHMAPUTRA SYSTEM

 The Brahmaputra, one of the largest rivers of the world, has its origin in the
CHEMAYUNGDUNG GLACIER OF THE KAILASH RANGE NEAR THE MANSAROVAR LAKE.

 In Tibet it is known as the Tsangpo, which means ‘the purifier.’

 The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary of this river in Tibet.
 It emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge in the Central
Himalayas near Namcha Barwa.

 The river emerges from the foothills under the name of Siang or Dihang.
 It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh. Flowing southwest, it receives its
main left bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit; thereafter, it is known as
the Brahmaputra.
 Its major left bank tributaries are THE BURHI DIHING AND DHANSARI (SOUTH) WHEREAS THE

IMPORTANT RIGHT BANK TRIBUTARIES ARE THE SUBANSIRI, KAMENG, MANAS AND SANKOSH.

 The Subansiri which has its origin in Tibet, is an antecedent river.

 The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.
  In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the
Jamuna. It finally merges with the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.

THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM

 It is older than the Himalayan one. This is evident from the broad, largely-graded shallow
valleys, and the maturity of the rivers.
 The Western Ghats running close to the western coast act as the water divide.
 Most of the major Peninsular Rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from west to east.
 PENINSULAR RIVERS ARE CHARACTERISED BY FIXED COURSE, ABSENCE OF MEANDERS
AND NON-PERENNIAL FLOW OF WATER.
 The Narmada and the Tapi which flow through the rift valley are, however, exceptions.

 THE EVOLUTION OF PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM

 Three major geological events in the distant past have shaped the present drainage
systems of Peninsular India:----
(i) Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its submergence below the
sea during the early tertiary period.
(ii) Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the peninsular block was
subjected to subsidence and the consequent trough faulting. The Narmada and The Tapi
flow in trough faults and fill the original cracks with their detritus materials. Hence, there is
a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.
(iii) Slight tilting of the peninsular block from northwest to the south-eastern direction gave
orientation to the entire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same
period.

A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE MAJOR PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEMS IS GIVEN BELOW:

--

 THE MAHANADI
 Rises near SIHAWA IN RAIPUR DISTRICT OF CHHATTISGARH and runs through Odisha
to discharge its water into the Bay of Bengal.
 Its main tributaries are the Seonath, the Jonk, the Hasdeo, the Mand, the ib, the Ong and
the Tel.

THE GODAVARI

 It is the LARGEST PENINSULAR RIVER system. It is also called the DAKSHIN GANGA.
 It rises in the NASIK DISTRICT OF MAHARASHTRA and discharges its water into the Bay of
Bengal.
 The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the Manjra are its principal tributaries.
 The river after Rajamundri splits into several branches forming a large delta.

THE KRISHNA
 It is the second largest east-flowing Peninsular River which rises near MAHABALESHWAR in
Sahyadri.
 THE KOYNA, THE TUNGBHADRA AND THE BHIMA ARE ITS MAJOR TRIBUTARIES.
 MAHARASHTRA, KARNATAKA, TELANGANA, ANDHRA PRADESH .

THE KAVERI

 Rises in BRAHMAGIRI HILLS of Kogadu district in Karnataka.

 Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.
 Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati.

THE NARMADA

 Originates on the western flank of the AMARKANTAK PLATEAU, MADHYA PRADESH.

 Flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in the
north, it forms a picturesque gorge in marble rocks and DHUANDHAR WATERFALL near
Jabalpur.
 DHUANDHAR WATERFALL

 It meets the Arabian sea south of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km long estuary.
 The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river.

WEST FLOWING RIVERS

 THE VAITARNA Rises from the TRIMBAK HILLS in Nasik district.

 THE KALINADI rises from Belgaum district and falls in the Karwar Bay.
 The source of BEDTI RIVER lies in Hubli Dharwar.
 The SHARAVATI (ORIGINATES IN SHIMOGA DISTRICT OF KARNATAKA) is another important
river in Karnataka flowing towards the west. GERSOPPA (JOG) FALL located on this river.

--- JOG FALL

 Goa has two important rivers which can be mentioned here. One is MANDOVI and the other is
JUARI.

 Kerala has a narrow coastline. The longest river of Kerala, BHARATHAPUZHA rises near
ANNAMALAI HILLS. It is also known as Ponnani.
 The PERIYAR is the second largest river of Kerala.
 Another river of Kerala worth mentioning is the PAMBA RIVER which falls in the VEMOBANAD
LAKE.

 ---- VEMOBANAD LAKE

 THE SUBARNREKHA, THE BAITARNI, THE BRAHMANI, THE VAMSADHARA, THE PENNER, THE
PALAR AND THE VAIGAI are important rivers.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HIMALAYAN AND PENINSULAR RIVERS -

 MOUNTAIN PASSES: IMPORTANT HIMALAYAN PASSES IN INDIA

PASSES OF JAMMU & KASGMIR -

NAME OF STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE LOCATION

PASS
AGHIL LA. Connects Ladakh with Xinjiang Province Situated north of Mt. K2 (Godwin Austen).
KARAKORAM The highest pass of India. Situated in the U.T of Ladakh.
BURZIL Connects Srinagar and Gilgit. Situated in the Greater Himalayas of Ladakh Union
Territory.
ZOJI LA Srinagar-Leh highway passes through it. situated in the Zaskar Range in Ladakh U.T.
PIR PANJAL Connects Kullu valley with Lahaul and Situated in the Pir Panjal range of Himalayas.
Spiti valley.
BANIHAL The Jawahar Tunnel passes through it. Situated in the Ladakh region.
SHIPKI LA The road from Shimla to Tibet passes Situated in the Zaskar Range in Himachal Pradesh.
through it.
BARA LACHA A road connecting Mandi and Leh passes Situated in the Zaskar Range in Himachal Pradesh.
LA through it.
MANA Connects Uttrakhand to Tibet Situated in the Kumaun range in Uttrakhand.
NITI A road connecting to Mansarovar and Situated at Indo-China border in the Kumaun range in
Kailash valley passes through it Uttarakhand.

PASSES OF HIMACHAL PRADESH -

PASSES IN UTTRAKHAND ---

PASSES OF SIKKIM ---

PASSES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH ----

NAME OF PASS STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE LOCATION
NATHU LA A ROAD CONNECTING TO TIBET, VIA CHUMBI SITUATED IN SIKKIM.
VALLEY AND DARJEELING PASSES THROUGH IT.
JELAP LA A ROAD CONNECTING TO TIBET PASSES SITUATED IN SIKKIM.
THROUGH THIS PASS.
BOM DI LA A ROAD LEADING TO TWANG VALLEY PASSES SITUATED IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH.
THROUGH IT.
YONGGYAP LA BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER ENTERS INTO INDIA SITUATED IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH.
THROUGH THIS PASS.
A ROAD TO CHINA PASSES THROUGH IT.
DIPHU IMPORTANT FOR BOTH MYANMAR AND INDIA. SITUATED IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH.
PANGSAU A ROAD FROM DIBRUGARH TO MYANMAR SITUATE IN INDO-MYANMAR BORDER
PASSES THROUGH IT. IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH.
TUJU A ROAD FROM IMPHAL TO MYANMAR PASSES
THROUGH IT.

NAME OF PASS STRATEGIC IMPORTANCE LOCATION

THAL GHAT MUMBAI-NAGPUR-KOLKATA RAIL-ROUTE PASSES SITUATE IN NORTHERN SAHYADRI

THROUGH IT. MUMBAI-NAGPUR-KOLKATA ROAD-ROUTE RANGE IN MAHARASHTRA.
PASSES THROUGH IT.
BHOR GHAT IMPORTANT PASS OF WESTERN GHATS. PUNE- SITUATE IN NORTHERN SAHYADRI
BELGAUM-CHENNAI RAIL-ROUTE PASSES THROUGH RANGE IN MAHARASHTRA.
THIS PASS. PUNE-BELGAUM-CHENNAI ROAD-ROUTE
PASSES THROUGH THIS PASS.

PAL GHAT IMPORTANT PASS OF WESTERN GHATS. CALICUT- SITUATED BETWEEN NILGIRI AND
TRICHUT-COIMBATORE-ERODE RAIL-ROUTE PASSES ANNAMALAI HILLS.
THROUGH IT. CALICUT-TRICHUT-COIMBATORE-ERODE
ROAD-ROUTE PASSES THROUGH IT.

PASSES OF PENINSULAR INDIA ----

  NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS

EARTHQUAKE ZONES ---

WHAT IS A DISASTER?
“Disaster is an undesirable occurrence resulting from forces that are largely
outside human control, strikes quickly with little or no warning, which causes or
threatens serious disruption of life and property including death and injury to a
large number of people, and requires therefore, mobilisation of efforts in excess
of that which are normally provided by statutory emergency services”.
 TSUNAMI

 Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that cause the sea-floor to move abruptly
resulting in sudden displacement of ocean water in the form of high vertical waves
are called tsunamis (harbour waves) or seismic sea waves.

 Normally, the seismic waves cause only one instantaneous vertical wave; but, after
the initial disturbance, a series of after waves are created in the water that oscillate
between high crest and low trough in order to restore the water level.
 The speed of wave in the ocean depends upon the depth of water. It is more in the
shallow water than in the ocean deep. As a result of this, the impact of tsunami is
less over the ocean and more near the coast where they cause large-scale
devastations.
 Therefore, a ship at sea is not much affected by tsunami and it is difficult to detect a
tsunami in the deeper parts of sea. It is so because over deep water the tsunami
has very long wave-length and limited wave-height.
 Thus, a tsunami wave raises the ship only a metre or two and each rise and fall
takes several minutes. As opposed to this, when a tsunami enters shallow water, its
wave-length gets reduced and the period remains unchanged, which increases the
wave height.
 Sometimes, this height can be up to 15m or more, which causes large-scale
destructions along the shores. Thus, these are also called Shallow Water Waves.
 Tsunamis are frequently observed along the Pacific ring of fire, particularly along
the coast of Alaska, Japan, Philippines, and other islands of Southeast Asia,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and India etc.

 TROPICAL CYCLONE
 Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure areas confined to the area lying between 30° N
and 30° S latitudes, in the atmosphere around which high velocity winds blow.
Horizontally, it extends up to 500-1,000 km and vertically from surface to 12-14 km.
 A tropical cyclone or hurricane is like a heat engine that is energised by the release of
latent heat on account of the condensation of moisture that the wind gathers after moving
over the oceans and seas.

 Some initial conditions for the emergence of a tropical cyclone are:

 Large and continuous supply of warm and moist air that can release enormous
latent heat.
 Strong Coriolis force that can prevent filling of low pressure at the centre (absence
of Coriolis force near the equator prohibits the formation of tropical cyclone
between 0°-5° latitude).
 Unstable condition through the troposphere that creates local disturbances around
which a cyclone develops.
 Finally, absence of strong vertical wind wedge, which disturbs the vertical transport
of latent heat.

 STRUCTURE OF TROPICAL CYCLONE

Tropical cyclones are characterised by large pressure gradients.
The centre of the cyclone is mostly a warm and low-pressure, cloudless core
known as eye of the storm.
Expansion of the wind belt is about 10-150 km from the centre.
 TYPES OF DROUGHTS

 METEOROLOGICAL DROUGHT :

 It is a situation when there is a PROLONGED PERIOD OF INADEQUATE

RAINFALL marked with mal-distribution of the same over time and space.

 AGRICULTURAL DROUGHT :
  It is also known as soil moisture drought, characterised by low soil
moisture that is necessary to support the crops, thereby
resulting in crop failures .
 Moreover, if an area has more than 30 per cent of its gross cropped area
under irrigation, the area is excluded from the drought-prone category.

 HYDROLOGICAL DROUGHT :

 It results when the availability of water in different storages

and reservoirs like aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. falls below

what the precipitation can replenish .
 CLIMATE

 Weather is the momentary state of the atmosphere while climate refers to the average of
the weather conditions over a longer period of time.
 Weather changes quickly, may be within a day or week but climate changes imperceptivity
and may be noted after 50 years or even more.
 India has hot monsoonal climate which is the prevalent climate in south and south-east
Asia.
 FACTORS DETERMINING THE CLIMATE OF INDIA
 India’s climate is controlled by a number of factors ----

LATITUDE: Tropic of Cancer passes through the central part of India in east-west direction.
Thus, northern part of the India lies in sub-tropical and temperate zone and the part lying
south of the Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical zone.
 The tropical zone being nearer to the equator, experiences high temperatures throughout
the year with small daily and annual range.
 Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being away from the equator, experiences extreme
climate with high daily and annual range of temperature.

THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS:

 The lofty Himalayas in the north along with its extensions act as an effective climatic
divide. The towering mountain chain provides an invincible shield to protect the
subcontinent from the cold northern winds.
 These cold and chilly winds originate near the Arctic circle and blow across central and
eastern Asia.
 The Himalayas also trap the monsoon winds, forcing them to shed their moisture within the
subcontinent.

DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATER:

 India is flanked by the Indian Ocean on three sides in the south and girdled by a high and
continuous mountain-wall in the north.
 As compared to the landmass, water heats up or cools down slowly. This differential
heating of land and sea creates different air pressure zones in different seasons in and
around the Indian subcontinent.
 Difference in air pressure causes reversal in the direction of monsoon winds.

DISTANCE FROM THE SEA:

 With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable climate.

 Areas in the interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the sea.
 Such areas have extremes of climate.
 That is why, the people of Mumbai and the Konkan coast have hardly any idea of extremes
of temperature and the seasonal rhythm of weather.

ALTITUDE:
 Temperature decreases with height.
 Due to thin air, places in the mountains are cooler than places on the plains.

RELIEF:
 The physiography or relief of India also affects the temperature, air pressure, direction and
speed of wind and the amount and distribution of rainfall.

 The windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam receive high rainfall during June-
September whereas the southern plateau remains dry due to its leeward situation along
the Western Ghats.

FACTORS RELATED TO AIR PRESSURE AND WIND

 To understand the differences in local climates of India, we need to understand the

mechanism of the following three factors:
 DISTRIBUTION OF AIR PRESSURE AND WINDS ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
 UPPER AIR CIRCULATION CAUSED BY FACTORS CONTROLLING GLOBAL WEATHER AND THE
INFLOW OF DIFFERENT AIR MASSES AND JET STREAMS.
 INFLOW OF WESTERN CYCLONES GENERALLY KNOWN AS DISTURBANCES DURING THE WINTER
SEASON AND TROPICAL DEPRESSIONS DURING THE SOUTH-WEST MONSOON PERIOD INTO
INDIA, CREATING WEATHER CONDITIONS FAVOURABLE TO RAINFALL.

The mechanism of these three factors can be understood with reference to winter and
summer seasons of the year separately.

 MECHANISM OF WEATHER IN THE WINTER SEASON

SURFACE PRESSURE AND WINDS:

 A high pressure centre in the region lying to the north of the Himalayas develops during
winter.
 This centre of high pressure gives rise to the flow of air at the low level from the north
towards the Indian subcontinent, south of the mountain range.

JET STREAM AND UPPER AIR CIRCULATION:

 The variations in the atmospheric pressure closer to the surface of the earth have no role
to play in the making of upper air circulation.
 All of Western and Central Asia remains under the influence of westerly winds along the
altitude of 9-13 km from west to east. These winds blow across the Asian continent at
latitudes north of the Himalayas roughly parallel to the Tibetan highlands. These are
known as jet streams.
 Tibetan highlands act as a barrier in the path of these jet streams. As a result, jet streams
get bifurcated. One of its branches blows to the north of the Tibetan highlands, while the
southern branch blows in an eastward direction, south of the Himalayas.
 It has its mean position at 25°N in February.
 It is believed that this southern branch of the jet stream exercises an important influence
on the winter weather in India.
 WESTERN CYCLONIC DISTURBANCE AND TROPICAL CYCLONES:

 The western cyclonic disturbances which enter the Indian subcontinent from the west and
the northwest during the winter months, originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are
brought into India by the westerly jet stream.
 Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean.
 These tropical cyclones have very high wind velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Tamil
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha coast.

MECHANISM OF WEATHER IN THE SUMMER SEASON

 SURFACE PRESSURE AND WINDS :

 As the summer sets in and the sun shifts northwards, the wind circulation over the
subcontinent undergoes a complete reversal at both, the lower as well as the upper
levels.
 By the middle of July, the low pressure belt nearer the surface [termed as Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ)] shifts northwards, roughly parallel to the Himalayas between
20° N and 25° N.
 By this time, the westerly jet stream withdraws from the Indian region.
 The ITCZ being a zone of low pressure, attracts inflow of winds from different directions.

 The maritime tropical

airmass (mT) from the southern hemisphere,
after crossing the equator, rushes to the low
pressure area in the general southwesterly
direction. It is this moist air current which is
popularly known as the southwest monsoon.
Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation : The
pattern of pressure and winds as mentioned
above is formed only at the level of th

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a low pressure zone located at the
equator
where trade winds converge, and so, it is a zone where air tends to ascend. In July,
the
ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes (over the Gangetic plain), sometimes
called
 the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough encourages the development of thermal
low
over north and northwest India. Due to the shift of ITCZ, the trade winds of the
southern
hemisphere cross the equator between 40° and 60°E longitudes and start blowing
from
southwest to northeast due to the Coriolis force. It becomes southwest monsoon. In
winter,
the ITCZ moves southward, and so the reversal of winds from northeast to south
and southwest, takes place. They are called northeast monsoons.

the southern part of the Peninsula in June, and

has a maximum speed of 90 km per hour
(Figure 4.3). In August, it is confined to 15oN
latitude, and in September up to 22o N latitudes.
The easterlies normally do not extend to the north
of 30o N latitude in the upper atmosphere.

Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical Cyclones : The

easterly jet stream steers the tropical
depressions into India. These depressions play
a significant role in the distribution of monsoon
rainfall over the Indian subcontinent. The
tracks of these depressions are the areas of
highest rainfall in India. The frequency at which
these depressions visit India, their direction
and intensity, all go a long way in determining
the rainfall pattern during the southwest
monsoon period.

THE NATURE OF INDIAN MONSOON

Monsoon is a familiar though a little known
climatic phenomenon. Despite the observations
spread over centuries, the monsoon continues
to puzzle the scientists. Many attempts have
been made to discover the exact nature and
causation of monsoon, but so far, no single
theory has been able to explain the monsoon
fully. A real breakthrough has come recently
when it was studied at the global rather than
at regional level.
Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall
in the South Asian region help to understand
the causes and salient features of the monsoon,
particularly some of its important aspects,
such as:
(i) The onset of the monsoon.
(ii) Rain-bearing systems (e.g. tropical
cyclones) and the relationship between
their frequency and distribution of
monsoon rainfall.
(iii) Break in the monsoon.

Onset of the Monsoon

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, it
was believed that the differential heating of
land and sea during the summer months is
the mechanism which sets the stage for the
monsoon winds to drift towards the
subcontinent. During April and May when the
sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer,
the large landmass in the north of Indian ocean
gets intensely heated. This causes the
formation of an intense low pressure in the
north-western part of the subcontinent. Since
the pressure in the Indian Ocean in the south
of the landmass is high as water gets heated

slowly, the low pressure cell attracts the

southeast trades across the Equator. These
conditions help in the northward shift in the
position of the ITCZ. The southwest monsoon
may thus, be seen as a continuation of the
southeast trades deflected towards the Indian
subcontinent after crossing the Equator. These
winds cross the Equator between 40°E and
60°E longitudes.

The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also

related to the phenomenon of the withdrawal
of the westerly jet stream from its position over
the north Indian plain, south of the Himalayas.
The easterly jet stream sets in along 15°N
latitude only after the western jet stream has
withdrawn itself from the region. This easterly
jet stream is held responsible for the burst of
the monsoon in India.
Entry of Monsoon into India : The southwest
monsoon sets in over the Kerala coast by 1st
June and moves swiftly to reach Mumbai and
Kolkata between 10th and 13th June. By mid-
July, southwest monsoon engulfs the entire
subcontinent (Figure 4.5)
Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall
Distribution
There seem to be two rain-bearing systems in
India. First originate in the Bay of Bengal
causing rainfall over the plains of north India.
Second is the Arabian Sea current of the southwest
monsoon which brings rain to the west
coast of India. Much of the rainfall along the
Western Ghats is orographic as the moist air is
obstructed and forced to rise along the Ghats.
The intensity of rainfall over the west coast of
India is, however, related to two factors:
(i) The offshore meteorological conditions.
(ii) The position of the equatorial jet stream
along the eastern coast of Africa.

EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon

EI-Nino is a complex weather system that appears once every three to seven years,
bringing
drought, floods and other weather extremes to different parts of the world.
The system involves oceanic and atmospheric phenomena with the appearance of warm
currents off the coast of Peru in the Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many places
including
India. EI-Nino is merely an extension of the warm equatorial current which gets replaced
temporarily
by cold Peruvian current or Humbolt current (locate these currents in your atlas). This
current
increases the temperature of water on the Peruvian coast by 10°C. This results in:
(i) the distortion of equatorial atmospheric circulation;
(ii) irregularities in the evaporation of sea water;
(iii) reduction in the amount of planktons which further reduces the number of fish in the
sea.
The word EI-Nino means ‘Child Christ’ because this current appears around Christmas
in December. December is a summer month in Peru (Southern Hemisphere).
EI-Nino is used in India for forecasting long range monsoon rainfall. In 1990-91, there
was a wild EI-Nino event and the onset of southwest monsoon was delayed over most parts
of
the country ranging from five to twelve days.

The frequency of the tropical depressions

originating from the Bay of Bengal varies from
year to year. Their paths over India are mainly
determined by the position of ITCZ which is
generally termed as the monsoon trough. As
the axis of the monsoon trough oscillates, there
are fluctuations in the track and direction of
these depressions, and the intensity and the
amount of rainfall vary from year to year. The
rain which comes in spells, displays a declining
trend from west to east over the west coast, and
from the southeast towards the northwest over
the North Indian Plain and the northern part
of the Peninsula.