Course Name: Essentials of Surveying: Application and

techniques

Week No:08 Lecture No:25

Topic Name: Tacheometry Introduction

Introduction
The most common method of measuring horizontal distances is chaining and that
for measuring vertical distances is differential levelling. Both of these methods
give results to the required accuracy. Chaining, however, on rough grounds does
not furnish very accurate results. When the ground is rough and more
observations at a faster rate with ordinary precision are acceptable, then
tacheometry is the choice. An example of the use of tacheometry for the above-
said conditions is the collection of data to draw contours on a topographic map.
As compared to chaining on flat grounds, the accuracy of tacheometric distances
is low, but on rough and steep grounds the accuracy is more.
Tacheometry is defined as an optical distance measurement method. Though less
accurate, this method of surveying is very rapid and convenient. The other names
given to tacheometry are tachymetry or telemetry.
The primary object of a tacheometric survey is the preparation of a contoured
plan. It is particularly suitable for filling in details on topographical maps,
preliminary location surveys (e.g., for railways, roadways, canals, reservoirs, etc.)
and surveying steep grounds, broken boundaries and water stretches, etc. Also,
on surveys of higher accuracy, it may be used to provide a ready check on
distances measured with a chain or tape.
A tacheometer is essentially a transit theodolite (Transit means it can completely
revolve around the horizontal axis), the diaphragm of which is furnished with
stadia wires in addition to the cross-wire. Observations are made on stadia rod,
usually a level staff but with a larger least count (1 cm), and horizontal as well
as vertical distances are computed from these observed readings.
INSTRUMENTS USED FOR TACHEOMETRIC SURVEYING
The following instruments are used:
1. Tacheometer. A tacheometer which is essentially nothing more than a
theodolite fitted with stadia hairs, is generally used for tacheometric surveying.
The stadia diaphragm consists of one stadia hair above and the other at equal
distance below the horizontal cross hair. The stadia hairs are kept in the same
vertical plane as the horizontal and vertical cross hairs.
Different forms of stadia diaphragms commonly used in tacheometers, are shown
in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Types of Diaphragms

2. Stadia rods. stadia rod

It is a rod (Fig. 2) 5 – 15 m long, graduated in decimals of a metre. For small
horizontal distances, say up to 100 m, an ordinary levelling staff may be used but
beyond this stadia rod is used, since the graduations of an ordinary levelling staff
become indistinct. There is a great variety of stadia rod patterns in common use.
But, irrespective of the patterns, an observer should be able to read easily and
accurately the staff intercepts through the telescope. The staff can be held either
vertical or normal to the line of sight.

Figure 2 Stadia Rods

Vertical Holding: -The staff must be held truly vertical. In ordinary work the
verticality of the staff can be judged by the eye, but in precise surveying it is
judged with the help of plumb bob. It can be shown that on slopes a small error
in the verticality of the staff results in serious errors in the computed distances.
Normal Holding: - The staff must hold perpendicular to the line of sight. The
perpendicularity of the staff may be checked by sighting the instrument with the
help of a pair of open sights, or by means of a small telescope fixed at right angles
to the side of the staff. The staff is inclined until the telescope of the tacheometer
is bisected by the cross-wires of the telescope fitted to the staff.
Merits and Demerits of Vertical and Normal Holding:-
1. It is a bit easy to ensure that the staff is perfectly vertical.
2. A slight error in not keeping the staff vertical causes a serious error in
computation of distances.
3. In the case of an inclined sight, it is difficult to keep the staff perpendicular
to the line of sight during high winds and in rough country.
4. In the case of normal holding, the accuracy of the direction of the staff can be
judged by the transitman even during high winds.
Reading the staff: -The telescope is directed to sight the staff. The telescope is
raised or depressed by means of a vertical tangent screw until one of the stadia
wires strikes some graduation on the staff. The other stadia wire is also read. The
difference of the two readings is the staff intercept. Then the middle cross-wire
and the corresponding vertical angle is read. Some of the surveyors keep the
middle hair reading equal to H.I. which results in minor arithmetical work. But
this practise should be disregarded as the error due to refraction of rays near the
ground creeps in, resulting in erroneous observations.
3 Subtense Bar: It is also known as horizontal stave. It is used for measuring
both the horizontal as well as the vertical distances in places where chaining is
impossible because of undulations and rough country. It is used to determine short
distances of up to 200 m.

Figure 3 Subtense Bar

 Fig 4 Subtance bar survey
It is a horizontal metal bar to which two targets are fixed at a known distance of
0.3 – 3.0 m apart. In India, the subtense bars are usually 3.5 m long. It is mounted
on a tripod. A small spirit level is provided to level it. After aligning and levelling
the bar, it is clamped by the screw underneath the tripod top. The targets are
usually 20 cm in diameter and are painted half red and half white with a 7.5 cm
black centre. Sometimes targets are made square as shown in Fig. 3. The targets
are set apart at a known distance and the horizontal angle between them is read
by a theodolite. The vertical angle to the bar is also read. Then the horizontal and
vertical distances are computed.
SYSTEMS OF TACHEOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
Tacheometric measurements, are made by one of the following systems:
(i) The stadia hair system. (ii) The tangential system.
1. Stadia hair system. The stadia hair system may further be divided into two
types :
1. Fixed hair method 2. Movable hair method.
Fixed hair method. In this method, stadia hairs are kept at fixed interval. The
intercept on the levelling staff (or stadia rod) varies, depending upon the
horizontal distance between the instrument station and the staff. The intercept
used in computation is deduced by subtracting the lower stadia reading from the
upper stadia reading.
When the staff intercept is more than the length of the staff, only half
intercept is read, which is equal to the difference between central stadia hair
reading and the lower / upper stadia hair reading.
 Fig. 5 Fixed Hair Method
This method can be suitably employed even when horizontal sights are not
possible. For inclined sights, readings may be taken by holding the staff either
vertical or normal to the line of sight. This is the most common method of
tacheometry and the name stadia hairs method generally refers to this method.
Movable hair method. In this method, the intercept on the levelling staff is
kept constant and the distances between the stadia hairs are variable. Two targets
on the staff at a known distance apart are fixed and the stadia hairs are adjusted
such that the upper hair bisects the upper target and the lower hair bisects the
lower target. In this case, a provision is made for the measurement of the variable
interval between the stadia hairs. For inclined sights, readings may be taken by
holding the staff either vertical or normal to the line of sight as in the case of fixed
hair method.
1. The tangential method. In this method, the stadia hairs are not used.
Readings on a staff are taken against the horizontal cross hair. To measure
the staff intercept, two pointings of the telescope are therefore,
necessary. Readings to full metre values on the staff are generally taken to
avoid the decimal part and also for simplification of computations. This
method is generally not adopted as two vertical angles are required to be
measured for one single observation.

PRINCIPLE OF TACHEOMETRY. (Fig. 6)

Statement. ‘‘In isosceles triangles, the ratio of the perpendiculars from the vertex
on their bases is constant”. This can be proved as under
Let ABC and AB′C′ be two isosceles triangles whose bases are BC and B′ C′ and
their vertex is at A. If AO and AO′ are the perpendiculars to their respective bases,
then
Fig. 6. Principle of tacheometry.
The apex angle for horizontal sights, the difference in elevations of the instrument
station and staff position is deduced in a similar way as in the case of differential
levelling.
AO AO ' 
  2 cot  K ,a constant where  is the apex angle. The value of
BC B ' C ' 2
constant K, entirely depends upon the magnitude of the apex angle  .
For horizontal sights, the difference in elevations of the instrument station and
staff position is deduced in a similar way as in the case of differential levelling.

THE STADIA HAIR METHOD

A. Distance and elevation formulae for horizontal sights for fixed hair
method
Figure 7 shows schematically a telescope of a tacheometer and stadia rod. The
surveyor sees, through the telescope, the upper and lower stadia hairs intersecting
the rod at A and B, respectively. The rays from A’ and B’, the stadia wires, pass
through the optical centre of the objective lens and continue to the rod at B and
A.
O= optical centre of the object glass,
A’,B’= the stadia wires,
A’B’=stadia interval,
C’=horizontal cross-wire position,
AB=s=staff intercept,
f= focal length of object glass,
f1,f2=the conjugate focal lengths of the lens, and are the distances between the
optical centre O and staff, and optical centre O and the image of staff,
respectively,
d=distance between the vertical axis of the tacheometer and the optical centre O
and
D=distance between the vertical axis of the tacheometer and the staff
i=stadia interval

Figure 7 Distances for horizontal sight

Figure 8 Stadia interval

From the similar triangles AOB and A’OB’
AB OC f
  1
A ' B ' OC ' f 2
s f1
or 
i f2

By the lens formula

1 1 1
 
f f1 f 2
f1 f
 1 1
f f2

f1
Hence substituting for in Eq. (7.1) leads to
f2

s f1
 1
i f

f
Or f1  s f
i
f
Or f1  d  s f d
i

 f 
Or D    s   f  d  ………………1
i 

Or D  Ks  C …………………….2

Equation (7.4) is known as the tacheometric distance equation.

Multiplying Constant K  f 
 
 i 
Additive Constant C  f d
The multiplying constant is also known as stadia interval factor.
Elevation of the staff station = elevation of the instrument axis – horizontal
cross-wire reading
f
The constant K = . Its value, therefore, depends upon the stadia interval and the
i
principal focal length of the objective.
To facilitate computation of distances, the stadia wires are so spaced as to make
the multiplying constant equal to 100.
Practically, it is a constant value for a tacheometer, as the value of d varies by
only a small and negligible amount when focussing the telescope on different
objects.
The value of C ranges from 0.25 to 0.35.
If an anallactic lens (will be discussed later in detail) is built into the telescope, it
is so placed that all the observations are reduced to the centre of the instrument
K=100 and the constant C becomes zero and the Eq. (2) is simplified to D = Ks.
Thus, if the staff intercept
is known, the horizontal distance can be readily obtained by multiplying it by
100.
In the preceding paragraphs, it has been assumed that the tacheometer was
oriented horizontally. In general, it is seldom possible to keep the line of sight
horizontal and perpendicular to the stadia rod due to the undulations of the ground
surface, or more precisely, when the staff stations and the instrument station have
large differences in elevation. In such a case an inclined line of sight must be
taken with the staff vertical or normal to it. Before we modify the distance
equation for the said cases, consider the procedure to determine the constants
experimentally as outlined below
1. A line AB about 200 – 250 m long is set out on a fairly level ground. Then
pegs are fixed at 25 – 30 m interval.
2. The tacheometer is set up at one end of the ranged line and the staff
intercepts are obtained by taking stadia readings on the staff held vertical
on every peg.
3. By substituting the value of different distances and staff intercepts in Eq.
(7.4), a number of equations are obtained:
D1  Ks1  C
D2  Ks2  C
D3  Ks3  C
4. These equations are solved in pairs to obtain several sets of constants K
and C. The mean of all the obtained values of K and C are reported as the
values of the constants K and C.
Example 1: Following are the data of an externally focusing telescope used for
a tacheometric survey
Staff Intercept 1.52m
Interval between stadia hair 5mm
Distance between the vertical axis of the telescope and 120mm
the objective
Focal length of the objective 0.3m
Find out value of the multiplying constant.
Solution: given s=1.52m, i=5mm; f=0.3m=300mm,d=0.12m
f 300
Multiplying constant K = =  60 ans
i 5

Also additive constant=  f  d  =0.30+0.12=0.42m

Example 2: A tacheometer has a diaphragm with three cross hairs spaced at
distances 1.15 mm. The focal length of the object glass is 23 cm and the distance
from the object glass to the trunnion axis is 15 cm. Calculate the tacheometric
constants.
Solution: f=23cm=0.23m; d=15cm=0.15m
i=2x1.15=2.30mm=0.23cm (since distance between cross hair is
1.15 and stadia interval is distance between outer stadia wires so it will be two
times distance between cross hairs)

Fig 9
Substituting the values in the standard formulae

= = 100
.

Multiplying constant =100

Additive constant=f+d=0.23+0.15=0.38m
Example 3: The stadia readings with horizontal sight on a vertical staff held 50
m from a tacheometer were 1.685 m and 2.320 m. The focal length of the object
glass was 25 cm. The distance between the object glass and the vertical axis of
the tacheometer was 15 cm. Calculate the stadia interval
Solution: Given f  25cm; d  15cm
C  f  d  25  15  40cm  0.4m

s  2.320  1.685  0.635m

f
Now D  s f d
i

 0.25 
50    0.635   0.25  0.15 
 i 

i  3.2  103 m  3.2mm

Example 4: The stadia reading with horizontal sight at a vertical staff held 50 m
away from the tacheometer were 1.225 and 2.390. the focal length of the object
glass was 25cm. The distance between the object glass and trunnion axis of a
tacheometer was 15 cm. Calculate the stadia interval.
Solution: Given staff readings
s1  1.225; s2  2.390; so staff intercept can be given as
s  s2  s1  2.390  1.225  1.165m
Horizontal distance D=50m
Focal length of object glass f =25cm=0.25m
Distance between the object glass and trunnion axis of a tacheometer d
=15cm=0.15m
Now
D  Ks  C
 f 
D   s f d
i 

 0.25 
50   1.165   0.25  0.15 
 i 
0.29
50   0.40
i
0.29
49.60  ;
i
0.29
i  5.9  103 m  5.9mm
49.60

So stadia interval=5.8mm
Example 5: The Following Reading were taken with a tacheometer on to a
vertical staff, Calculate tacheometric constant:-
Horizontal Staff Reading (m)
Distance
45 0.885 1.110 1.335
60 1.860 2.160 2.460

Solution:
s1  1.335  0.885  0.45
s2  2.460  1.860  0.60

D1  Ks1  C
D2  Ks2  C

D1  Ks1  C

45  K (1.335  0.885)  C

45  K (0.45)  C ……………..(1)

D2  Ks2  C

60  K (2.460  1.860)  C

60  K (0.60)  C …………………(2)

Equation(2)-Equation(1) will give

15  0.15K

K  100

Putting value of K in equation (1)

45  100  (0.45)  C

C 0

So Tacheometric constants K  100; C  0

Example 6: Calculate the value of K and C, if the measurements are taken
between two points of 50 and 130 distant apart and the stadia intercept readings
will be 0.024, 0.824 respectively.
Solution:
D1  Ks1  C
D2  Ks2  C

D1  Ks1  C

50  K (0.024)  C ……………..(1)

D2  Ks2  C

130  K (0.824)  C …………..(2)

Equation(2)-Equation(1) will give

80  0.8K
K  100

Putting value of K in equation (1)

50  100  (0.024)  C

50  2.4  C

C  47.6

So Tacheometric constants K  100; C  47.6

Example 7: In order to determine the constants of a tacheometer distances 201
and 400 m were accurately measured and readings on stadia rod on upper and
lower wires were as follows:
At 201m 2.00 4.00
At 400m 0.50 4.50
Determine the values of the constants and find the distance when the readings of
stadia wires were 1.5, 4.5 m. The line of sight being horizontal in all cases
Solution
s1  4.0  2.0  2.0m

s2  4.50  0.50  4m

D1  Ks1  C
D2  Ks2  C

D1  Ks1  C

201  K (2.0)  C ……………..(1)

D2  Ks2  C

400  K (4.0)  C …………………(2)

Equation(2)-Equation(1) will give

199  2K
K  99.5;

Putting value of K in equation (1)

201  99.50  (2.0)  C

C  2;

So Tacheometric constants K  99.5; C  2

Now for the given problem s  4.5  1.5  3.0m
D  Ks  C  99.5  3.0  2  300.5m Ans

Example 8: For a tacheometer with a multiplying constant =100 and an additive

constant c=0.3m , if the staff intercept is measured as 2.0 meters, calculate the
horizontal distance D
Solution
Given K=100; C=0.3m; s=2m
So from the formula D=Ks+C
D=100x2+0.3
D=200.3m

 
Example 9. The constants f i and  f  d  for a certain tacheometer were 100
and 0.3 m respectively. Readings of three diaphragm wires on a staff held at a
distant object were found 3.44, 2.40, 1.60 m. The telescope being horizontal. Find
the horizontal distance of the staff from the instrument axis and the R.L. of the
staff point if the R.L. of instrument axis is 80.00 metres. (Fig. 13.46.)
Solution:

Figure 10
Let D=Horizontal Distance
S  3.44  1.60  1.84m

 f 
D  S .    f  d 
 i 

D  1.84 100  0.3  184  0.3  184.3m

R.L. of staff point=R.L. of instrument axis-central hair reading

R.L. of staff point=80.00-2.40=77.60m Ans
References:

1.B.C. Punmia, Ashok K. Jain, Arun K. Jain, Surveying Ⅰ & Ⅱ, Eighteenth

Edition, Laxmi Publications,2024.
2.R. Agor, Surveying and leveling, Khanna Publishers.
3.Kanetkar and Kulkarni, Surveying and leveling, Pune Vidyarthi,
GrihaPrakash, Pune.
4.K. R. Arora, Surveying Ⅰ & Ⅱ, Standard Book House, Delhi.