Module-2
Machine Tool Operations: Lathe: Principle of working of a center lathe, lathe operations: Turning,
facing, knurling, thread cutting, taper turning by swivelling the compound rest,
Drilling Machine: Working of simple drilling machine, drilling operations: drilling, boring,
reaming, tapping, counter sinking, counter boring,
Milling Machine: Working and types of milling machine, milling operations: plane milling, end
milling and slot milling. (No sketches of machine tools, sketches to be used only for explaining
the operations).
Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems: Introduction, components of CNC, advantages
and applications of CNC, 3D printing.
Chapter-4
14.1 MACHINING & MACHINE TOOLS
Machining* is the process of removal of excess material from a given workpiece to the desired
shape, size, and finish, using power driven machine tools. A few commonly used machine tools
include Lathe, Drilling machine, Milling machine, Grinding machine, etc. Each machine tool has
its own specific features and capabilities that make them suitable for specific applications.
However in general, most machine tools perform the following functions:
1) Hold the work material and cutting tool in their respective position
2) Impart motion to the work material, or cutting tool, or both, in the desired direction.
3) Regulate the cutting speed and also the feeding movement between the cutting tool and work
material.
14.2 LATHE
Lathe is the oldest of all machine tools and perhaps the most basic tool used in industries. A lathe
is used to remove excess material by forcing a cutting tool against a rotating cylindrical work piece.
They are primarily used to produce cylindrical, plain and tapered surfaces, and also used for
knurling and thread cutting on metal parts. Besides these, they can also perform operations such
as drilling, boring, reaming, etc. Lathes are also called turning machines, since the work piece is
turned or rotated between two centers; the live center and dead center of the machine as shown in
figure 14.1(a).
14.2.1 Working Principle of Lathe
Lathe works on the principle that, a cutting tool can remove material, when it is moved against a
rotating workpiece. This is accomplished by rotating the workpiece between two rigid and strong
supports, while the cutting tool is fed against it. Basically three types of surface can be produced
depending on the movement of the cutting tool with respect to the rotating workpiece.
1) When the tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece as shown in figure 14.1
(a), a cylindrical produced. The operation is termed as cylindrical or plain turning
2) When the tool moves perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the workpiece as shown in figure
14.1(b), a flat produced. The operation is termed as facing.
3) When the tool moves at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece as shown in figure
14.1(c), a tapered produce. The operation is termed as taper turning.
14.4 LATHE OPERATIONS
A variety of operations can be performed on a lathe. These include; turning, facing, knurling,
thread cutting, drilling, taper turning, boring, etc. A few of them are discussed briefly below.
a) Cylindrical Turning
Cylindrical turning, also called plain turning or straight turning is the operation of removing excess
material from the workpiece to produce a cylindrical surface. Refer Figure 14.1 (a). The workpiece
is held rigidly and rotated between the two centers; live center and dead center. The cutting tool is
fed against the revolving workpiece, in a direction parallel to the lathe axis so as to produce a
cylindrical surface. Cylindrical turning can be done through rough turning and finish turning. In
rough turning, the excess material from the workpiece is removed rapidly by giving a deep depth
of cut and a high feed rate. Whereas, in finish turning, excess material is removed by giving light
depth of cut and small feed. A smooth surface with the specified tolerance can be produced in
finish turning.
b) Facing
A Facing is the operation for generating a flat surface at the end of the workpiece as shown in
figure 14.1(b). In this operation, one end of the workpiece is held rigidly in the chuck, while the
other end is left un-supported. The tool is fed in a direction perpendicular to the lathe axis to
produce a flat surface at the end of the workpiece. Facing is also carried out to reduce or cut the
workpiece to the required length.
(c) Taper turning
Taper turning is the process of producing a conical surface from a cylindrical shaped workpiece.
A taper is produced, when the cutting tool moves at an angle to the axis of rotation of the
workpiece. Refer figure 14.1(c). Taper can be produced by any one of the following methods.
• By swivelling (rotating) of compound rest
• By off-setting the tailstock
• By using a taper turning attachment
• By form tool method
Taper turning by swivelling (rotating) of compound rest
In this method as shown in figure 14.4, the compound rest supporting the cutting tool is swivelled
to the desired angle at which the taper is to be produced. This angle, called half-taper angle (a) is
calculated using the equation given below.
where D = larger diameter of taper in mm and d= smaller diameter of taper in mm & L1 = Length
of taper in mm
The compound rest has a circular base graduated in degrees. The rotation of the compound rest to
the calculated taper angle, will cause the tool to be fed at that angle, thereby producing the
corresponding taper on the workpiece. This method is more suitable for producing steep taper with
short lengths.
d) Knurling:
Knurling is a process carried out on a lathe, whereby a visually attractive criss cross pattern is cut
or rolled on the surface of metallic parts. Refer Figure 14.6(a).
In operation, the lathe is set, so that the workpiece revolves at a slow speed. The knurling tool is
pressed against the rotating workpiece and pressure is slowly increased until the tool produces a
pattern on the workpiece. Sometimes more than one pass may be required to get a deep cut.
Depending on the knurling tool selected, a variety of knurled patterns can be produced. Refer
figure 14.6(b) The pattern thus produced on the surface of the workpiece allows human hands or
fingers to get a better grip on the knurled object than would be provided by the originally smooth
metal surface.
5.4.4 Thread Cutting
Thread cutting or threading is a operation for cutting screw threads on metallic parts. Figure 5.5
shows a thread cutting operation
In operation, a suitable tool which gives the required thread profile (ex. V-thread, square thread
etc.) is mounted on the tool post. The carriage is connected to the lead screw with the help of a
split nut. The rotation of the lead screw gives the required motion to the carriage relative to the
rotation of the workpiece (or spindle). The speed of the spindle in thread cutting is much lower
that that used in turning. Hence the speed of the spindle should be initially adjusted.
The depth of cut is selected and the tool is made to move parallel to the axis of rotation of the
workpeice by means of automatic arrangement. By disengaging the split nut, the carriage is
brought back to its initial position to start another cut.
Thread cutting is carried out in a number of passes. The final cut is a finishing cut with a very
small depth of cut to obtain good surface finish.
Chapter-5
Drilling Machine: Working of simple drilling machine, drilling operations: drilling, boring,
reaming, tapping, counter sinking, counter boring,
Working of simple drilling machine
5.7.1 Bench Drilling Machine (Sensitive Drilling Machine)
Bench drilling machine is used for drilling small holes at high speeds in small jobs. The
diameter of the hole usually ranges from 1.5 mm to 15.5 mm. These machines are usually
mounted on work-benches and hence the name. Figure 5.12 shows a bench drilling machine.
The details regarding the various parts of the machine are described below. The machine
consists of
a) Vertical column
It is made of a hollow steel pipe mounted over a strong base.
b) Work table
It supports the workpiece to be drilled. The work table is usually provided with T-slots that
helps the workpiece to be clamped rigidly on the table. The worktable can be moved up and
down and can be clamped to the vertical column at any desired position.
c) Moving head
The moving head carries a driving motor and a driving mechanism. The driving mechanism
contains a drill spindle that can rotate as well as slide up and down. Power is transmitted from
the motor to the spindle through belt drive arrangement. The spindle speed can be varied by
altering the belt position on the stepped cone pulley. The lower end of the spindle accommodates
a drill chuck used for holding the drill bit rigidly.
Fig 5.12 Bench drilling machine
Operation
In operation, the workpiece is clamped rigidly on the worktable. With the help of a center punch,
indentation mark is made at the location where the hole is to be drilled. The machine is started and
with the help of hand feed lever, the drill bit is slowly fed so that the 'point' of the drill bit touches
the indentation mark. Gradual feed is given so as to produce the hole. When the hole is completed,
the drill bit is withdrawn slowly by rotating the hand feed lever in the reverse direction.
In bench drilling machine, the drill bit is fed into the workpiece by a hand operating lever. This
enables the operator to sense or feel the movement of the cutting tool into the workpiece which in
turn helps him to vary the feed. Hence, these machines are also called `Sensitive drilling machine'.
Drilling operations: drilling, boring, reaming, tapping, counter sinking, counter boring,
5.8.1 Drilling
It is the primary operation carried out to produce a cylindrical hole in a solid workpiece by means
of a revolving tool called 'drill bit'. Figure 5.10 shows the drilling operation. The hole is generated
by the sharp edges of the rotating drill bit that is forced to move against the rigidly clamped
workpiece. The chip gets curled and escapes through the helical grooves provided in the drill bit
5.8.2 Boring
Boring is the operation of enlarging a previously drilled hole, by means of an adjustable cutting
tool having only one cutting edge. Refer Figure 5.14. Boring is performed when a drill bit of the
required dimension is not available. In such cases, a hole is first drilled to the nearest dimension
and then using a single point cutting tool, the size of the hole is enlarged to the required dimension
5.8.3 Reaming
It is the operation of finishing a previously drilled hole so as to bring it to the accurate size and
also to have a good surface finish. Reaming operation is carried out by means of a multi-tooth
revolving tool called 'reamer'. Figure 5.15 shows the reaming operation.
While reaming, the speed of the spindle is reduced to half of that of the drilling. The material
removed is very less and hence the drilled hole surfaces are finished with high accuracy.
5.8.4 Tapping
Tapping is the operation of cutting internal threads in a previously drilled hole. The tool used for
the operation is called 'Tap'. Refer Figure 5.16. Taps are available in standard sizes. Hence, to
generate a specific size thread, a hole is first drilled to the nearest dimension and then using a
standard size tap, threads are cut in the same way as drilling. While tapping, the spindle has to
rotate at slow speeds compared to drilling.
5.8.5 Counter Sinking
Counter sinking, as shown in Figure 5.17, is the operation of enlarging one end of a cylindrical
hole into a conical shape. This operation is performed in order to accommodate the conical head
of components such as screws or rivets.
The tool used for this operation is called 'counter sink'. Standard tools (counter sinks) have 60°,
82° or 90° included angle and the cutting edges are formed on the conical surface.
5.8.6 Counter Boring
Counter boring is the operation of enlarging one end of a previously drilled hole through a small
depth as shown in Figure 5.18. This operation is performed in order to accommodate the heads of
bolts, studs, sockets, etc.
The tool used for counter boring is called 'counter bore'. The tool is provided with a 'pilot' at its
bottom whose diameter is equal to that of the previously drilled hole. The pilot guides the tool
during cutting.
Chapter-6
Milling Machine: Working and types of milling machine, milling operations: plane milling,
end milling and slot milling. (No sketches of machine tools, sketches to be used only for
explaining the operations).
14.6 TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES
The different types of milling machines are listed as follows:
(i) Column and knee milling machines
(a) Plain column and knee type milling machines
• Horizontal spindle type • Vertical spindle type
(b) Universal Column and knee type milling machine
(ii) Bed type milling machines
(iii) Planer type milling machine
(iv) Special purpose milling machines
(a) Tracer-controlled milling machine
(b) Thread milling machine
(c) CNC milling machine, etc
14.6.1 Horizontal Spindle Column & Knee Milling Machine
It is one of the most popular type of milling machine, and is commonly called horizontal milling
machine, because of the horizontal position of the spindle. This type of machine is used to cut grooves,
slots, keyways, gear teeth etc. Figure 14.9 (a) shows one of the principal views of a horizontal milling
machine. Figure 14.9 (b) shows the pictorial view of the same. The machine consists of the following
parts:
a) Base is usually a strong and a hollow part, which forms the foundation of the machine and upon
which all the other parts are mounted. The base also serves as a sump for the cutting fluid. A pump and
filtration system can be installed in the base. The hole provided in the center of the base, houses the
support for the elevating screw that raises and lowers the knee.
b) Column is a vertical hollow casting and is usually combined with the base to form a single casting.
The column houses the spindle and bearings as well as the drive units (gears, clutches, shafts, and
shifting mechanisms) for transmitting power from the electric motor to the spindle at desired speeds.
The front face of the vertical column is provided with a square or dovetail type guideways on which the
knee slides up and down.
c) Spindle is a hollow shaft supported by the column with suitable bearings that absorb both radial
and thrust loads. The spindle is made hollow and tapered inside to accept standard arbors. The spindle
obtains power from the motor and transmits it to the arbor. The arbor carrying the cutter rotates about a
horizontal axis.
d) Overarm mounted on the vertical column supports the yoke, which in turn supports the free end of
the arbor.
e) Knee is a casting that slides up and down on the vertical guideways provided on the column by
means of an elevating screw. The knee supports the saddle
f) Saddle mounted on the knee is provided with two slides (guideways) on its top and bottom
surfaces. The slides are machined at right angles to each other. The lower slide fits the slide provided
on top of the knee and facilitates horizontal movement of the saddle. The upper slide provided on the
saddle accepts the slide provided on the bottom surface of the worktable.
g) Worktable is larger in size and rests on the saddle. The bottom surface of the table has a dovetail slide
that fits in the slide on the top surface of the saddle. This arrangement facilitates the work table to be
moved longitudinally or at right angles to the movement of the saddle. The worktable is provided with T-
slots all along its length for mounting vice or other work holding devices. This enables the workpiece to be
clamped rigidly on the table. The worktable may be manually controlled or power fed. A dial graduated in
thousandths of an inch (not shown in figure) is provided to allow for accurate table movement and
placement.
14.6.2 Vertical Spindle Column and Knee Milling Machine
Vertical spindle milling machines are similar in construction to the horizontal milling machines, except that
the spindle is held in a vertical position. This type of machine is generally used to perform end milling
and face milling operations. Figure 14.10 shows the principal parts of a vertical milling machine.
Constructional details Readers are requested to refer section 1 4.6. 1. Horizontal spindle column and knee
milling machine for details regarding the various parts of the machine. The details regarding the spindle
used in vertical milling machine is briefed as follows.
Spindle is located vertically, parallel to the face of the column, and perpendicular to the top of the
worktable. The spindle is mounted in the spindle head and carries the cutter at its end. The spindle head
houses the motor & feed controls, & can be either fixed type or swiveling type.in fixed type, the spindle
head is fixed, and hence the spindle remains vertical. The spindle can be adjusted up and down to perform
operations like grooving, slotting, facing, drilling and boring. While, in swiveling type, the spindle head can
be swiveled to any angle to the surface of the worktable. This permits working on angular surfaces of
workpieces.
14.7 MACHINING ON MILLING MACHINE
A few machining processes on milling machine are discussed as
follows.
1) Plain or Slab milling
Plain milling, also called surface milling, peripheral milling or slab milling is a machining process
for producing a plain horizontal surface with a milling cutter whose axis is parallel to the surface
of the workpiece being machined. Refer figure 14.11. The process is carried out on a horizontal
milling machine with a cutter having straight or helical teeth formed on the periphery of a
cylindrical surface. The cutter is mounted on the arbor, rotating at a suitable speed, while the
workpiece is fed against the cutter causing material to be removed from the workpiece. A plain
smooth surface can be produced with this process. Helical tooth cutter removes greater amount of
material and produces a smooth surface finish when compared to the straight tooth cutters.
2) End milling is a machining process carried out for producing flat surfaces, profiles, slots,
grooves, or finishing the edges of the workpiece by means of a tool called end mill or end milling
cutter. Figure 14.12 shows an end milling cutter having teeth on the end as well as the periphery
(sides) for machining with both its end as well as its sides. The cutter usually rotates on an axis
perpendicular to the work surface, although it can be tilted to machine tapered surfaces. End mills
are also available with hemispherical ends (ball nose) for machining curved surfaces in metallic
dies and moulds.
3) Slot milling
Slot milling is a machining process for producing slots like T-slots, plain slots, dovetail slots etc.,
in worktable fixtures and other work holding devices. The operation may be performed using
either end milling cutter, T-slot cutter, dovetail cutter, or side milling cutter. The type of cutter
selected depends on the shape of the slot to be Throat depth produced. Figure 14.13 shows the
operation of producing T-slot. Head
Two separate milling cutters are required for milling T-slots. space depth Initially, a plain cutter,
side cutter or an end milling cutter is used to cut the throat (open slot) starting from one end of
the workpiece to its other end. A T-slot milling cutter is then used to cut the headspace to the
desired dimensions. Similar procedure is followed for cutting a dovetail slot, but a dovetail slot
cutter is used in place of T-slot cutter.
Chapter-7
Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems: Introduction, components of CNC,
advantages and applications of CNC, 3D printing.
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Most of the traditional manufacturing machines, processes and activities are replaced with new
and emerging technologies. Today modem manufacturing environments are filled with advanced
technologies, computer aided machines with progressive software programs. Production
activities depend on information, automation, computation, software, sensing and networking.
The end result is the quality and efficient production through reduced consumption of energy,
manpower and materials. The present chapter deals with basics of Computer Numerical Control
(CNC) machines, working principles of few Mechatronic systems, Smart manufacturing and
Internet of Things (loT).
15.2 CNC MACHINES
CNC is a short name for Computer Numerical Control. It refers to a computer controller that
accepts a program or a set of instructions and stores it in the memory of the computer, which in
turn controls the working of the machine tool. The program can be modified or edited while it is
in the computer memory as and whenever required thereby offering a great degree of flexibility in
manufacturing.
15.2.1 Components of CNC Machine
Figure 15.1 shows the flow diagram of a CNC machine. The external appearance of a CNC
machine is very similar to that of a NC machine, however the limitations of a NC machine is
successfully overcome with the various components incorporated in a CNC machine.
CNC machine basically consists of three components. These include:
Part program and program input device
Controller unit, also called machine control unit (MCU), and
Machine tool.
a) Part Program & Program Input Device
In a CNC machine, the part program is done either manually on punched tapes and then fed into
the memory of the computer, or with the aid of various computer softwares that automatically
generates the program required to produce the desired part. In today's industrial practice, manual
method of programming is obsolete.
b) Machine Control Unit (MCU)
In modern CNC technology, the machine control unit (MCU) consists of a microcomputer and
related control hardware that stores the program of instructions and executes it by converting each
command into mechanical actions of machine tool, one command at a time. The MCU includes
system software, calculation algorithm, and transition software to convert the part program into a
usable format for the MCU. It also acts as a feedback controller for precise positioning of machine
table or spindle.
c) Machine Tool
The machine tool performs the actual machining operation, and can be of any type like lathe,
drilling machine, milling machine, etc. The machine tool consists of work table and tool spindles
whose motion can be controlled accurately by the driving system that receives commands from the
MCU. A part with the desired features is produced by the machine tool,
15.3 ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS & APPLICATIONS OF CNC
Few advantages and disadvantages of CNC machines are discussed as follows.
Advantages
a) Higher productivity. The machine can run for 24-hours, in all the 365 days with little or no
interruption.
b) Higher precision, with better quality control of products.
c) Multi operational facilities (or tasks).
d) Does not require a skilled operator.
e) Improved automation — The operator intervention during manufacturing can be reduced,
and in some cases, eliminated. Many CNC machines can run unattended during their entire
machining cycle, thereby freeing the operator to do other tasks.
f) Repeatability & Reliability — Once the program is verified and executed for one
production run, the same program can be recalled for subsequent productions thereby
maintaining uniformity in the dimensions and tolerances of the parts. Hence CNC machines
can be consistently relied upon.
g) Flexibility — CNC machines can run a variety of programs and have workpieces leading
to fast changeovers and set-ups. Further, programs can be modified as and when required
before starting the operation.
h) Motion control — CNC machines allow motion of the cutting tool in two or more directions
(x, y & z-axis), or move the machine slide, spindle, or other parts precisely by means of
servomotors instead of the usual cams, levers, etc., as in the case of conventional machines.
i) Increased machine utilization — if properly used, CNC machines can run continuously for
24 hours and 365 days.
Disadvantages
a) High initial cost of the machine
b) High maintenance cost
c) Requires skilled programmer.
Applications of CNC Machines
1) Used to carry out all machining process like turning, milling, grinding, boring, reaming, etc.
2) Plasma or flame cutting, laser cutting, shearing, forming, punching, bending and other
operations.
3) Electric discharge machining (EDM) and Wire EDM process.
4) To carve a jewelry model from a block of wax, welding, etc.
3D printing
3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a process of creating three-dimensional
objects by adding material layer by layer based on a digital model. This technology has gained
significant popularity and is utilized in various industries for prototyping, manufacturing, and
customization. Here are some key aspects of 3D printing:
Basic Process:
1. Modeling: A 3D model of the object is created using computer-aided design (CAD)
software or obtained from existing models.
2. Slicing: The 3D model is sliced into thin layers using specialized software, generating a
set of instructions for the 3D printer.
3. Printing: The 3D printer reads these instructions and builds the object layer by layer. The
printing material is typically plastic, metal, resin, or other specialized materials.
Types of 3D Printing Technologies:
1. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM): This is one of the most common methods where a
thermoplastic filament is melted and extruded layer by layer to create the object.
2. Stereolithography (SLA): Uses a liquid resin cured by ultraviolet light to build layers.
SLA often produces high-resolution and detailed prints.
3. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): Utilizes a laser to sinter powdered material (such as
metal or plastic) layer by layer, creating the final object.
4. PolyJet: This technology jets layers of liquid photopolymer onto a build tray, which is then
cured by UV light. It allows for multi-material and multi-color printing.
Advantages of 3D Printing:
1. Rapid Prototyping: Enables quick and cost-effective development of prototypes.
2. Customization: Allows for highly personalized and tailored product manufacturing.
3. Complex Geometries: Capable of producing intricate and complex shapes efficiently.
4. Reduced Waste: More material-efficient compared to traditional manufacturing methods.
5. Low Volume Production: Ideal for small-batch or on-demand production.
Disadvantages of 3D Printing:
1. Material Limitations: Limited variety of materials compared to traditional
manufacturing.
2. Build Size Constraints: Restricted by the build volume of 3D printers.
3. Surface Finish: May require post-processing for a smooth final appearance.
4. Speed: Relatively slow, especially for larger or complex objects.
5. Equipment Costs: High-quality 3D printers can be expensive.
Applications:
1. Prototyping: Industries use 3D printing to quickly and cost-effectively produce prototypes
for design and testing purposes.
2. Manufacturing: Some industries utilize 3D printing for low-volume production of
specialized components, tools, or products.
3. Medical: 3D printing is used to create custom implants, prosthetics, and even tissue for
medical applications.
4. Aerospace: Components with complex geometries are often 3D printed for aircraft and
spacecraft, reducing weight and improving performance.
5. Education: 3D printing is widely used in educational settings to teach design principles
and engineering concepts.
