University of La Salette
College of Engineering and Architecture
Geo-tech – Soil Mechanics
INTRODUCTION
Soil is defined as a mix of mineral grains, organic matter, water, and air in the spaces
between particles. In civil engineering, soil is used for construction and supports structures,
so understanding its properties, such as grain size, water drainage, compressibility, shear
strength, and load-bearing capacity, is crucial.
Soil mechanics studies the physical properties and behavior of soil under forces.
Soil engineering applies soil mechanics to practical construction problems.
Geotechnical engineering is a branch of civil engineering that focuses on natural
materials near the Earth's surface, applying soil and rock mechanics to design
foundations, retaining walls, and earth structures.
It's important to distinguish soil mechanics (which studies soil properties under ideal
conditions) from foundation engineering, which applies these principles in real-world
foundation design, considering soil variability.
Geotechnical engineering also examines soil behavior under loads and water interactions,
crucial for designing structures like dams and retaining walls.
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Weight-Volume Relationship from the Phase Diagram of Soil
V =Vs +Vv ; total volume=volume of soilds+ volume of voids
Vv=Vw +Va ; volume of voids=volume of water + volume of air
W =Ws+ Ww ; total weight=weight of solids +weight of water
Void Ratio, e - Void ratio is the ratio of volume of voids to the volume of solids.
Vv
e=
Vs
Porosity, n - Porosity is the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume of soil.
Vv
n=
V
Degree of Saturation, S - Degree of saturation is the ratio of volume of water to the volume of voids.
Vw
S=
Vv
Water Content or Moisture Content, w - Moisture content, usually expressed in terms of percentage,
is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids.
Ww
w= x 100
Ws
Wo−Wdry
w= x 100 % ; if oven−drying is takeinto acct .
Wdry
Unit Weight, - the weight of soil per unit volume.
W
γ=
V
Dry Unit Weight, - is the weight of dry soil per volume. (S = 0%)
Gs
γ d= ¿
1+ e
Ws
γ d=
V dry
Moist Unit Weight, - (S = 0-100%)
Gs + Se
γ m= ¿
1+ e
γ d =γ d (1+ w)
Saturated Unit Weight,
G s+ e
γ sat = ¿
1+ e
γ sat =γ d +n ¿
Fully Saturated/ Bulk (Rainwater),
Gs −1
γ b= ¿
1+ e
'
γ =γ sat −γ w
Relationship between void ratio and porosity,
e n
n= ∧e=
1+ e 1−n
Relationship between Specific Gravity, weight, void ratio and degree of saturation,
Gs w=eS
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Relative Density of Granular Soils - The relative density, Dr, expresses the state of compactness of a
natural granular soil.
Where :
emax=void ratio of the soil ∈loosest state
emin=void ratio of the soil∈ densest state
e=void ratio of the soil deposit ( ¿−situ state )
γ dry max=dry unit weight∈densest state
γ dry min=dry unit weight ∈loosest state
γ dry=dry unit weight (¿−situ state )
Designation of Granular Soil
Designation Dr (%)
Very Loose 0-15
Loose 15-35
Medium Dense 35-70
Dense 70-85
Very Dense 85-100
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Attenberg Limits - The Atterberg Limits describe the consistency of cohesive soil based on its water
content, which affects its firmness (soft, medium, firm, or hard). As water content increases, soil
transitions through different states: from solid to semisolid, to plastic, and finally to liquid. The water
content at these transition points is referred to as the shrinkage limit, plastic limit, and liquid limit,
respectively.
Albert Mauritz Atterberg's limits refer to specific water contents at critical stages of soil behavior. These
limits, along with the natural water content, are crucial for understanding and describing the properties
of fine-grained soils.
Liquid Limit (LL): The water content where soil starts to flow like a thick liquid. Just below this,
the soil is soft and moldable.
Plastic Limit (PL): The water content where soil changes from soft and moldable to crumbly
and cracked.
Shrinkage Limit (SL): The water content where the soil stops shrinking as it dries. Below this
point, further drying doesn't cause the soil to get smaller.
Plasticity Index, PI – Strength, compressibility, compaction
PI =¿−PL
Description:
PI Description
0 Non-plastic
1-5 Slightly plastic
5-10 Low plasticity
10-20 Medium plasticity
20-40 High plasticity
>40 Very high plasticity
Liquidity Index, LI – Compressibility, and stress state
MC−PL
LI =
PI
Description:
LI < 0 Semisolid state
0 < LI < 1 Plastic state
L1 > 1 Liquid state
Shrinkage Index, SL – Shrinkage Potential
SL=PL−PL
Activity of Clay, Ac – Compressibility, and stress state
PI
Ac= ; where μ=soil finer than 0.002 mm∈ percent
μ
Description:
Activity Classification
Ac < 0.7 Inactive Clay
0.7 < Ac < 1.2 Normal Clay
Ac > 1.2 Active Clay
Soil Particle Size Classification and Particle Size Distribution
USDA: United States Department of Agriculture
MIT: Massachusetts Institute of Technology
AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
USCS: Unified Soil Classification System
Particle Size Distribution
Sieve Analysis – for soil greater than 0.075mm (Coarse)
Hydrometer Analysis – for soil less than 0.075mm (Fine)
D10 – effective size (10% finer percentage of soil)
D x – percent “x” (usual D60 , D30 , D10, D75, D25)
Coefficient of Uniformity, Cu – it is a ration expressing the variation in grain size of granular material.
D60 Cu > 4 Well Graded – Gravel
C u= Cu > 6 Well Graded - Sand
D10
Coefficient of Curvature, Cc – the shape of particle-size curve
2
(D¿¿ 60)
C c= ¿
D60 x D10
Cc must be between 1 to 3 (Note: Both Cc and Cu must be well graded to be consider well graded)
Sorting Coefficient, So –
C u=
√ D75
D25
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AASHTO
Left to Right; up to down and elimination method (Use of Table)
Group Index, GI
GI =( F200 −35 ) [ 0.2+ 0.005 ( ¿−40 ) ] +0.02(F 200 −15)( PI −10)
LL PI
RULES for GI
When calculated negative, represent as zero or “0”
Always round to nearest WHOLE number
No upper limit values
A-1-a, A-2-b, A-3, A-2-4, A-2-5; GI is “0”
A-2-6 and A-2-7; GI is Partial Index
A-8 – Organic Material
GI
↓ values: Excellent or Good
↑ values: Organic or Not Suitable
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USCS
Fines < 5% (SW / SP)
Fines > 12%
SM (Attenberg limits below “A-line” or PI < 4
SC (same for GM and GC) Attenberg limits above “A-line”; with PI > 7
S = Sand, W = Well graded
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Pycnometer Test
Soil Sample → oven dry → container → weight
m
ρ=
v
δ s ρs m s m s
Gs= ∨ = =
δw 1 v ms
mw = mass of water
related to volume of soil solids
1g
ρw =
Cc
3
ρw =1000 kg/m
Ws
Ww
W s=W 2 −W 1
W s=W 2 −W 1
W 3 −W 4 =W s −W w
W s−(W s −W w )
(W ¿ ¿2−W 1 )−(W ¿ ¿ 3−W 4 )¿ ¿
W 2−W 1
Gs=
(W ¿ ¿ 2−W 1)−(W ¿ ¿ 3−W 4 )¿ ¿
References:
https://www.mcgill.ca/civil/undergrad/areas/geotechnical#:~:text=Description%20%7C%20Recommend ed
%20courses-,Description,and%20geosynthetics%20for%20waste%20containment. (2005)
Braja M. Das – Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering 3rd Edition
https://mathalino.com/reviewer/geotechnical-engineering/consistency-soil-atterberg-limits
Soil Particle Size Classification and Particle Size Distribution Presentation by Engr. Richard V. Avellanoza, RMP
