Course Notes

1- Relation between Individual and Society

Introduction

Man is a social animal. He has a natural urge to live an associated life with others.
Man needs society for his existence or survival. The human child depends on his
parents and others for its survival and growth. The inherent capacities of the child
can develop only in society. The ultimate goal of society is to promote good and
happy life for its individuals. It creates conditions and opportunities for the all-
round development of individual personality. Society ensures harmony and
cooperation among individuals in spite of their occasional conflicts and tensions.
If society helps the individuals in numerous ways, great men also contribute to
society by their wisdom and experience. Thus, society and individuals are bound
by an intimate and harmonious bond and the conflicts between the two are
apparent and momentary. In a well-ordered society, there would be lasting
harmony be- tween the two.

Society

The term “society” means relationships social beings, men, express their nature
by creating and re-creating an organization which guides and controls their
behavior in myriad ways. Society liberates and limits the activities of men and it
is a necessary condition of every human being and need to fulfillment of life.
Society is a system of usages and procedures of authority and mutual aid many
divisions of controls of human behavior and of liber- ties. This changing system,
we call society and it is always changing. Society exists only where social beings
“behave” toward one another in ways determined by their recognition of one
another.

Nature of Society:

Society is an abstract term that connotes the complex of inter-relations that

exist between and among the members of the group. Society exists wherever
there are good or bad, proper or improper relationships between hu- man
beings. These social relationships are not evident, they do not have any
concrete from, and hence society is abstract. Society is not a group of people;
it means in essence a state or condition, a relationship and is therefore
necessarily an abstraction. Society is organization of relationship. It is the
total complex of human relationships. It includes whole range of human
relations. Social relationships invariably possess a physical element, which
takes the form of awareness of another’s presence, common objective or
common interest. Now we can say that society is the union itself, the
organization, the sum of formal relations in which associating individuals are
bound together. Societies consist in mutual interaction and inter relation of
individuals and of the structure formed by their relations.

Social Life a human being man cannot live without association. So man’s
life is to an enormous extent a group life. Be- cause individuals cannot be
understood apart from their relations with one another; the relations cannot
be understood apart from the units (or terms) of the relationship. A man of
society may be aided by the understanding of say, neurons and synapses, but
his quest remains the analysis of social relationships. The role of social life is
clarified when we consider the process by which they develop in the life of
the individual.

Man Is a Social Animal

Though accurate information about the exact origin of society is not known still it
is an accepted fact that man has been living in society since time immemorial.
Long ago, Aristotle expressed that “Man is essentially a social animal by nature”.
He cannot live without society, if he does so; he is either beast or God. Man has
to live in society for his existence and welfare. In almost all aspect of his life he
feels the need of society. Biologically and psychologically he compelled to live in
society. Man can never develop his personality, language, culture and “inner
deep” by living outside the society. The essence of the fact is that man has always
belonged to a society of some sort, without which man cannot exist at all. Society
fulfills all his needs and provides security. Every human took birth, grows, live
and die in society. Without society human’s life is just like fish out of water.
Hence there exists a great deal of close relationships between man and society.
Both are closely inter-related, interconnected and inter-dependent. Relationship
be- tween the two is bilateral in nature. But this close relationship between man
and society raises one of the most important questions i.e. in what sense man is a
social animal? No doubt Aristotle said so long ago. However, man is a social
animal mainly because of the following three reasons:

Man Is a Social Animal by Nature

Man is a social animal because his nature makes him so. Sociality or sociability is
his natural instinct. He can’t but live in society. All his human qualities such as:
to think, to enquire, to learn language, to play and work only developed in human
society. All this developed through interaction with others. One can’t be a normal
being in isolation. His nature compels him to live with his fellow beings. He can’t
afford to live alone. Famous sociologist MacIver has cited three cases in which
infants were isolated from all social relationships to make experiments about
man’s social nature.
The first case was of Kasper Hauser who from his childhood until his seventeenth
year was brought up in woods of Nuremberg. In his case it was found that at the
age of seventeen he could hardly walk, had the mind of an infant and mutter only
a few meaningless phrases. In spite of his subsequent education he could never
make himself a normal man.

Necessity Makes Man a Social Animal

Man is a social animal not only by nature but also by necessity. It is said that
needs and necessities makes man social. Man has many needs and necessities.
Out of these different needs social, mental and physical needs are very important
and needs fulfillment. He can’t fulfill these needs without living in society. All
his needs and necessities compel him to live in society. Many of his needs and
necessities will remain un- fulfilled without the co-operation of his fellow beings.
His psychological safety, social recognition, loves and self-actualization needs
only fulfilled only within the course of living in society. He is totally dependent
for his survival upon the existence of society. Human baby is brought up under
the care of his parents and family members.

Man Lives in Society for His Mental and Intellectual Development

This is yet another reason for which man is a social animal. Society not only
fulfils his physical needs and determines his social nature but also determines his
personality and guides the course of development of human mind. Development
of human mind and self is possible only living in society. Society molds our
attitudes, beliefs, morals, ideals and thereby moulds individual personality. With
the course of living and with the process of socialization man’s personality
develops and he became a fully-fledged individual. Man acquires a self or
personality only living in a society. From birth to death individual acquires
different social qualities by social interaction with his fellow beings which
moulds his personality. Individual mind without society remains undeveloped at
infant stage.

Relation between Individual and Society

Human cannot survive without society and societies cannot exist without
members. Still there may be conflicts between the individual and society; one can
imagine that social systems function better when they have considerable control
over their individual members, but that this is a mixed blessing for the system’s
members. Like- wise can competition with other societies strengthens the social
system, while wearing out its constituent members? This idea was voiced by
Rousseau (1769) who believed that we lived better in the original state of nature
than under civilization, and who was for that reason less positive about classic
 Greek civilization than his con- temporaries. The relation between individual and
society has been an interesting and a complex problem at the same time. It can be
stated more or less that it has defied all solutions so far.

2- Electoral system or voting system

An electoral system or voting system is a set of rules that determine how elections and
referendums are conducted and how their results are determined. Political electoral systems are
organized by governments, while non-political elections may take place in business, non-profit
organizations and informal organizations. These rules govern all aspects of the voting process:
when elections occur, who is allowed to vote, who can stand as a candidate, how ballots are
marked and cast, how the ballots are counted (electoral method), limits on campaign spending,
and other factors that can affect the outcome. Political electoral systems are defined by
constitutions and electoral laws, are typically conducted by election commissions, and can use
multiple types of elections for different offices.

Some electoral systems elect a single winner to a unique position, such as prime minister,
president or governor, while others elect multiple winners, such as members of parliament or
boards of directors. There are many variations in electoral systems, but the most common
systems are first-past-the-post voting, the two-round (runoff) system, proportional
representation and ranked voting. Some electoral systems, such as mixed systems, attempt to
combine the benefits of non-proportional and proportional systems.

The study of formally defined electoral methods is called social choice theory or voting theory,
and this study can take place within the field of political science, economics, or mathematics, and
specifically within the subfields of game theory and mechanism design. Impossibility proofs
such as Arrow's impossibility theorem demonstrate that when voters have three or more
alternatives, it is not possible to design a ranked voting electoral system that reflects the
preferences of individuals in a global preference of the community, present in countries
with proportional representation and plurality voting.
 3- Government and its Composition
Meaning of Government

As a society, we have always have flourished when we lived together in communities. A country
is nothing but one giant community, and like every community, it must be governed. Let us
study about the main purpose and functions of the government. We will also see the three forms
of government, democracy, autocracy and oligarchy.

What is Government?

Every now and then, in social media or newspapers, you may have come across news about a
new bill or a new policy update. In recent times, the demonetization move and the GST rollout
took over the country with a storm. More often than not, conversations always revolve around
politics. What went right or what went wrong. Sometimes it’s about a fuel hike and sometimes
it’s about the general law and order or social welfare. All in all, all these topics or conversations
revolve around the government.

So, what is a government? A government is an institution or a system made of a group of people

that takes care or manages a country or a state. Every government has its own constitution or a
set of fundamental principles that it follows to ensure effective governance. Now when we say
governance, what does that entail? How does it work? Once appointed or formed, the
government is responsible for the social welfare, law and order, defence, and financial affairs of
the country.

Responsibilities of a Government

Although the list is exhaustive and endless, let’s discuss a few important responsibilities of a
government. A government must ensure the security of its people through the means of an
effective legislation. A government must form and manage an efficient police force, a fair
court justice system, and a robust defense force.
Next, a government must provide civic amenities and build infrastructure for the social welfare,
health, and development of its people. In addition to providing amenities and infrastructure, a
government must effectively manage the country’s economy. And this involves managing
inflation, maintaining sufficient foreign reserves, and stimulating foreign investments.

A government must also take steps to protect the environment from further neglect. It should
take steps to protect and clean its local and international waters, set up wildlife sanctuaries, and
invest in renewable sources of energy and power.

Levels of a Government

As you already know, a government’s responsibilities towards its people are endless. From
forming effective policies to building civic amenities, a government needs to ensure that it’s all
done efficiently so that the people can make the most of it. And that’s the reason why a
government has its levels. For instance, each state in India has a state government. And within
each state, there is a separate municipal body that governs each district or village. And then,
every village has its Panchayat. These levels ensure that the central government’s policies and
rules are implemented all over the country.

Forms of Government

Now that you are familiar with the basic responsibilities of the government, let’s understand who
makes up the government. We all know that India is a democratic country. But there are many
other countries that do not follow democracy. Let’s look at a few government types.

Democracy

In a democracy, a country’s people are involved in choosing its leader or head. The people are
involved in the process of forming a government. They have the free will and right to vote for a
party to come into power. The right to vote is not determined by wealth or class or race. In a
democracy, there are different parties that have a manifesto or an idea about how a country
should be governed. A democratic government is formed when a majority of people support a
certain party as the ruling party or power.

Within democracy again, there are several forms of democracies such as a republic, a
constitutional monarchy, a presidential system, or a parliamentary system.

Autocracy

An autocracy is a form of government where the supreme power or rule is in the hand of one
individual or entity. People or external authorities have no say in the decisions of this individual
or entity. Autocracy includes absolute monarchy where a family or a group of families, also
known as royalty, rule a country. The post of the monarch is inherited in an absolute monarchy.
In this system, the monarch’s power is not restricted by any laws or legislation. Some examples
of absolute monarchy are Saudi Arabia, Brunei, and Oman.

However, in recent times, there are constitutional monarchies, elected monarchies, or even
crowned republics or symbolic monarchies. In a constitutional monarchy, the sovereign exercises
its power in accordance with the written or unwritten constitution. An elective monarchy elects
its head in contrast to hereditary monarchy. In a symbolic monarchy, the monarch has limited
authority in constitutional matters. The monarchy is symbolic or ceremonial in nature.

Now autocracy also includes dictatorship. And there are two types of dictatorship—civilian
dictatorship and military dictatorship. Civilian dictatorship is when absolute power is in the
hands of a single civilian. This civilian can be an elected person, a monarch, or a dictator.
Example of dictators includes the famous Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, and Mao Zedong.

A military dictatorship is formed when the military takes control of power in a country. And
there may be different reasons why the military seizes power from the ruling party. Sometimes, it
is formed with the intention of saving people from corrupt politicians.
Oligarchy or Aristocracy

An oligarchy is a form of government where power or authority is in the hands of a small class
of privileged people or people who have similar or shared interests. An oligarchy is different
from a democracy in the sense that very few people have the choice to vote or change anything.
And it is different from a monarchy in the sense that power is in the hands of a few people and
not a king.

Also, the power is not inherited. There are several kinds of oligarchies such as aristocracy (rule
by nobles), plutocracy (rule by wealth), timocracy (rule by an honorable), and technocracy (rule
by technical experts or educated people).
 4- Election and Its Kinds

An election is a formal group decision-making process by which a population chooses an

individual to hold public office.[1] It is usually used in Democratic nations. Elections have been
the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17th
century.[1] Elections may fill offices in the legislature, sometimes in the executive and judiciary,
and for regional and local government. This process is also used in many other private
and business organizations, from clubs to voluntary associations and corporations.

The universal use of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern representative
democracies is in contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype, ancient Athens, where
the Elections were not used were considered an oligarchic institution and most political offices
were filled using sortition, also known as allotment, by which officeholders were chosen by lot.
Electoral reform describes the process of introducing fair electoral systems where they are not in
place, or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems. Psephology is the study of
results and other statistics relating to elections (especially with a view to predicting future
results).

Types of Elections
There are three basic types -- primary, general and local. In addition, "special elections" can be
called which are limited to one specific purpose, e.g., filling a vacancy.

What is a primary election?

There are two types of primary elections. In a Presidential primary election, voters registered
with a political party select the candidate who will represent that party on the ballot in the next
general election in November. In its statewide primary, California now has a Top Two Open
Primary system, which means that all candidates running for state constitutional, U.S.
Congressional, and state legislative offices will be listed on a single statewide primary election
ballot. Voters can vote for the candidate of their choice for these offices, regardless of how they
are registered. The top two candidates, as determined by the voters, will advance to the general
election in November.
In a Presidential primary election, if you are registered to vote with a political party, you will be
given a ballot for that party. Each political party has the option of allowing decline-to-state
voters to vote in their Presidential primary. Find out how to vote for President based on your
party affiliation.

When are primary elections held?

The statewide primary is held in March of even-numbered years on the first Tuesday after the
first Monday. The California Legislature sets the Presidential primary date.

What is a general election?

The general election is one that is held in the whole state and is not limited to voters in a
particular party or a specific locality.

When are general elections held?

The statewide general election is held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday of November in
even-numbered years. The general election for the President is held quadrennially on the first
Tuesday after the first Monday of November.

What is the purpose of a general election?

The purpose of a Presidential general election is to make a final choice among the various
candidates who have been nominated by parties or who are running as independent or write-in
candidates. In addition, where nonpartisan races have not been decided in the primary, the
runoffs are held at the general election. The purpose of the statewide general election for given
state and congressional offices is for voters to make a final choice between the top two-vote
getters in the statewide primary election. Statewide measures also can be placed on the
November ballot.

What is a nonpartisan office?

It is an office for which candidates' names appear on the ballot without party designation. No
party may nominate a candidate for nonpartisan office.
Which offices are nonpartisan?

Local offices such as most city council members, county supervisors, all school boards, all
judgeships, including the statewide office of member of the California Supreme Court. The
statewide offices of Superintendent of Public Instruction and Insurance Commissioner are
nonpartisan.

Are there nonpartisan primaries?

Yes. Some local nonpartisan primaries such as those for judges are usually held at the same time
as the statewide regular primary. A candidate for a nonpartisan office who is on the primary
ballot is selected if he or she wins more than 50% of the vote. If not, there is a runoff election in
November between the top two candidates.

Do all nonpartisan offices use primaries?

No, some nonpartisan offices, such as most city councils and school boards, do not use
primaries. Candidates run as independents and the person with the most votes wins even if it is
not a majority.

When are local elections held and how do I learn about them?

There is no set time or method that applies to all city, county, school or special district elections.
If you are a registered voter you will receive a Sample Ballot before the election. This provides
basic information you need about who is running for what office and whether there are any local
ballot measures. Most local offices are nonpartisan and candidates run without party affiliation
noted on the ballot. You can always check VotersEdge.org for more information about your local
elections.
 5- Propaganda

Propaganda is information that is used primarily to influence an audience and further

an agenda, which may not be objective and may be presenting facts selectively to encourage a
particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded language to produce an emotional rather than
a rational response to the information that is presented. [2] Propaganda is often associated with
material prepared by governments, but activist groups, companies, religious organizations, the
media, and individuals can also produce propaganda.

In the 20th century, the term propaganda had often been associated with
a manipulative approach, but propaganda historically is a neutral descriptive term.

A wide range of materials and media are used for conveying propaganda messages, which
changed as new technologies were invented, including paintings, cartoons, posters, pamphlets,
films, radio shows, TV shows, and websites. More recently, the digital age has given rise to new
ways of disseminating propaganda, for example, through the use of bots and algorithms to create
computational propaganda and spread fake or biased news using social media.

Are you a propagandist? If you write nonfiction intended to persuade, yes, by a broad
definition, you almost certainly are. Here are fifty terms for, and definitions of, forms of
propaganda, at least one of which such writers will likely employ in a given piece of content.

Propaganda (the word is from a New Latin term meaning “propagating,” synonymous in this
connotation with publicizing) has been defined as “communication intended to shape
perceptions, manipulate cognition, and direct behavior.” That’s a broad definition — a
narrower one would limit propaganda to willful, prejudicial manipulation of information — but
it helps writers and readers understand that because almost any content can be considered
propaganda, they must be alert to the subtext of almost any content they produce or consume.
1. Ad hominem: attacking opponents rather than opponents’ ideas or principles

2. Ad nauseam: repeating ideas relentlessly so that the audience becomes inured to them
3. Appeal to authority: use of authority figures (or perceived authority figures such as
celebrities) to support ideas

4. Appeal to fear: exploitation of audience anxieties or concerns

5. Appeal to prejudice: exploitation of an audience’s desire to believe that it is virtuous or

morally or otherwise superior

6. Bandwagon: exploitation of an audience’s desire to conform by encouraging adherence to or

acceptance of idea that is supposedly garnering widespread or universal support

7. Beautiful people: depiction of attractive famous people or happy people to associate success
or happiness with adherence to an idea or cause or purchase of a product

8. Black-and-white fallacy: presentation of only two alternatives, one of which is identified as

undesirable

9. Classical conditioning: association of an idea with another stimulus

10. Cognitive dissonance: using a favorable stimulus to prompt acceptance of an unfavorable

one, or producing an unfavorable association

11. Common man: adoption of mannerisms and/or communication of principles that suggest
affinity with the average person

12. Cult of personality: creation of an idealized persona, or exploitation of an existing one, as a

spokesperson for an idea or a cause

13. Demonizing the enemy: dehumanizing or otherwise denigrating opponents to sway opinion
14. Dictat: mandating adherence to an idea or cause by presenting it as the only viable
alternative

15. Disinformation: creating false accounts or records, or altering or removing existing ones, to
engender support for or opposition to an idea or cause

16. Door in the face: seeking compliance with a request by initially requesting a greater
commitment and then characterizing the desired outcome as a compromise or a minor
inconvenience

17. Euphoria: generating happiness or high morale by staging a celebration or other motivating
event or offer

18. Fear, uncertainty, and doubt: disseminating false or negative information to undermine
adherence to an undesirable belief or opinion

19. Flag waving: appealing to nationalism or patriotism

20. Foot in the door: manipulation by encouraging a small gift or sacrifice, which establishes a
bond that can be exploited to extract more significant compliance

21. Glittering generalities: applying emotionally appealing but vague and meaningless words to
an idea or cause

22. Half-truth: making a statement that is partly true or only part of the truth, or is otherwise
deceptive
23. Inevitable victory: assurance of uncommitted audience members and reassurance of
committed audience members that an idea or cause will prevail

24. Join the crowd: communication intended to persuade the audience to support an idea or
cause because it is or will be the dominant paradigm
25. Labeling or name-calling: using euphemistic or dysphemistic terms to encourage a positive
or negative perception of a person, an idea, or a cause

26. Latitudes of acceptance: introducing an extreme point of view to encourage acceptance of

a more moderate stance, or establishing a barely moderate stance and gradually shifting to an
extreme position

27. The lie: false or distorted information that justifies an action or a belief and/or encourages
acceptance of it

28. Love bombing: isolation of the target audience from general society within an insular group
that devotes attention and affection to the target audience to encourage adherence to an idea
or cause

29. Managing the news: influencing news media by timing messages to one’s advantage,
reinterpreting controversial or unpopular actions or statements (also called spinning), or
repeating insubstantial or inconsequential statements that ignore a problem (also called staying
on message)

30. Milieu control: using peer or social pressure to engender adherence to an idea or cause;
related to brainwashing and mind control

31. Obfuscation: communication that is vague and ambiguous, intended to confuse the
audience as it seeks to interpret the message, or to use incomprehensibility to exclude a wider
audience

32. Operant conditioning: indoctrination by presentation of attractive people expressing

opinions or buying products

33. Oversimplification: offering generalities in response to complex questions

34. Pensée unique (French for “single thought”): repression of alternative viewpoints by
simplistic arguments

35. Quotes out of context: selective use of quotations to alter the speaker’s or writer’s
intended meaning or statement of opinion

36. Rationalization: use of generalities or euphemisms to justify actions or beliefs

37. Red herring: use of irrelevant data or facts to fallaciously validate an argument

38. Reductio ad Hitlerum: persuasion of an audience to change its opinion by identifying

undesirable groups as adherents of the opinion, thus associating the audience with such groups

39. Repetition: repeated use of a word, phrase, statement, or image to influence the audience

40. Scapegoating: blaming a person or a group for a problem so that those responsible for it are
assuaged of guilt and/or to distract the audience from the problem itself and the need to fix it

41. Selective truth: restrictive use of data or facts to sway opinion that might not be swayed if
all the data or facts were given
42. Sloganeering: use of brief, memorable phrases to encapsulate arguments or opinions on an
emotional rather than a logical level

43. Stereotyping: incitement of prejudice by reducing a target group, such as a segment of

society or people adhering to a certain religion, to a set of undesirable traits

44. Straw man: misrepresentation or distortion of an undesirable argument or opinion, or

misidentifying an undesirable persona or an undesirable single person as representative of that
belief, or oversimplifying the belief
45. Testimonial: publicizing of a statement by an expert, authority figure, or celebrity in support
of an idea, cause, or product in order to prompt the audience to identify with the person and
support the idea or cause or buy the product

46. Third party: use of a supposedly impartial person or group, such as a journalist or an expert,
or a group falsely represented as a grassroots organization, to support an idea or cause or
recommend a product

47. Thought-terminating cliché: use of a truism to stifle dissent or validate faulty logic
48. Transfer: association of an entity’s positive or negative qualities with another entity to
suggest that the latter entity embodies those qualities

49. Unstated assumption: implicit expression of an idea or cause by communication of related

concepts without expressing the idea or cause

50. Virtue words: expression of words with positive connotations to associate an idea or cause
with the self-perceived values of the audience
 6- Pressure Groups and Political Groups
PRESSURE GROUP

● Pressure groups are formed when people with common interest, aspirations,
occupation, or opinion come together in order to achieve a common objective.
● Pressure group does not aim to directly control or share power.
● They have specific interest and work for the collective interest of their members.
● They are informal institution.
● They are often secretive, conceited, consprational and sometimes even unrecognized
entities.
● Their membership is limited.
● They resort agitations, demonstration etc. to get their demands implemented.
● They are smaller organization
POLITICAL PARTIES

● A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold
power in the government. They agree on some policies and programs for the society
with a view to promote collective good.
● They directly aim to control or share political power.
● They have a broad based proprogramme taht covers many aspects of national
interest.
● They are formal institution.
● They are open and recognized part of the political system competing for power.
● Their membership is very broad based.
● To achieve their aim they use constitutional means.
● They are larger organization.
 7- Good Governance

Political Awareness

Political awareness is about sensitivity to public policy and government, and the agendas
driving politicians. In its broadest sense, however—and certainly in the sense in which it is used
in Emotional Intelligence—political awareness is about understanding the ‘currents’, or hidden
agendas, in an organization, and particularly the power relationships. Many people may have
been put off the idea of being politically aware by seeing people ‘playing politics’ or trying to
manipulate others using political tactics. But used wisely and well, political awareness is a force
for good, and for getting things done in organizations, and it is an essential skill in life.

Positive Political Behaviors

Theories of political behavior, as an aspect of political science, attempt to quantify and explain
the influences that define a person's political views, ideology, and levels of political
participation. Broadly speaking, behavior is political whenever individuals or groups try to
influence or escape the influence of others. Political behavior is the subset of human behavior
that involves politics and powers. Socialization is the process through which individuals acquire
knowledge, habits, and value orientations that will be useful in the future. The ability to relate
on this common level is what fuels and enables future ideological growth. Political behavior
may be defined as any action regarding authority in general and government in particular. This
authority includes church, school, and any others but in particular governmental authority. An
obvious example of an act of political behavior is the act of voting. In casting your vote you are,
in a democracy, relating to government by voting for whom you feel should form the
government. In this act of political behavior, you also decide who you do not want to form the
government. The quality of government is a major determinant of the quality of people's lives.
Underdeveloped countries suffer from misguided economic policies such as price controls and
subsidies, over-investment in arms and underinvestment in health and education, excessive
regulation, and corruption. Developed countries also suffer from unbalanced national budgets,
inefficient subsidies, and other ills, although the developed countries generally have better
government. World problems such as depletion of fisheries suffer from the lack of regulation
and international institutions.

In the long run, and sometimes in the short run, government policy depends on the political
actions and omissions of citizens. But the individual citizen typically has little influence. Thus,
one of the most important determinants of our wellbeing is controlled almost completely by
our collective behavior but is affected very little by our individual behavior. This situation
contrasts with that in a free market for goods and services, where our wellbeing is also affected
by our decisions, but individual decisions have a direct effect on individual outcomes. In political
behavior - such as voting, responding to polls, trying to influence others, writing letters, or
making contributions of time and money - our little actions are pooled together to make one
huge decision that affects us all. This situation opens up the possibility that political behavior is
less sensitive to its consequences for the decision maker, and more sensitive to other factors
such as emotions and, I shall argue, moral (or moralistic) principles. Political behavior might
therefore be more subject to decision biases, fallacies and errors than is market-oriented
behavior. This insensitivity to consequences, if it happens, is interesting for the study of rational
decision making. It raises special questions.

Democratic Political Parties

Political parties are essential institutions of democracy. By competing in elections parties offer
citizens a choice in governance, and while in opposition they can hold governments
accountable. Most Pakistani parties are generally viewed as patronage-focused, rather than
reliant on certain signature policies. This is a result of Pakistan’s patronage-based economy, in
which individuals’ fortunes are generally tied to family-based connections rather than merit.
Because of this, it is important for people to develop patronage relationships with local party
leaders to resolve daily issues. Since independence in 1947, Pakistan has experienced
democracy for only about 28 years. The lack of internal democracy within Pakistani political
parties has been both a cause and an outcome of Pakistan’s chequered democratic track-
record. This weakness has made it easier for unelected institutions like the military to derail
democracy. In turn, this prolonged derailment has shielded parties from the public pressures
for improvement that regular elections impose on them. Political parties are formally organized
public groups seeking political power. They serve three key functions: mobilization —
identifying critical problems, and developing political agendas and coalitions around them —
electioneering, and, if they win elections, governance. Different political parties exhibit different
organizational features and agenda structures in performing these functions. Organizationally,
party leadership is either personalized or merit-based. Personalized parties are formed by
charismatic persons and often become dynastic entities centered on the founder’s family.

Autonomous Election Commission

The Election Commission has to be autonomous in order to ensure unbiased elections in the
country. The Election Commission is an autonomous body which is entrusted the task of
conducting free and fair elections. It can perform this task only when it is free from political
pressure or interference from the executive. It is a permanent Constitutional body which
supervises, directs and controls the process of elections to the offices of Prime Minister,
President, Vice-President, Parliament and Legislatures of all the States. The Election
Commission should be autonomous to conduct free and fair elections.

Healthy Political Culture

Political culture is defined by the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences as the "set of
attitudes, beliefs and sentiments that give order and meaning to a political process and which
provide the underlying assumptions and rules that govern behavior in the political system". It
encompasses both the political ideals and operating norms of a polity. Political culture is thus
the manifestation of the psychological and subjective dimensions of politics. A
political culture is the product of both the history of a political system and the histories of the
members. Thus, it is rooted equally in public events and private experience. It is the political
socialization process that produces and reproduces cultural attitudes about power, legitimacy,
authority, and public policy. This process, by which political values and beliefs are instilled in
citizens, is controlled and shaped by such interrelated authorities as parents, teachers and
boards of education, clergy, business owners and media programmers, and public officials.
These agents of political socialization determine what political themes will prevail in the
consciousness of citizens regarding the proper purpose of government, the role of ordinary
citizens in the political process, the kinds of people who should be entrusted with decision-
making authority, the political limits and possibilities of human nature, and the ways in which
government should or should not be involved in economics, education, religion, and the family.
In general, the prevailing political culture tends to help perpetuate the existing structure of
power, but under certain circumstances, the opposite may be true. Political change, including
revolution, is invariably preceded by a weakening or challenging of the existing political culture.
And political culture can itself be a source of change when we conceive of countries and
organizations as being composed of contending political subcultures.

Good Governance and Development

First, we must know that good governance refers to processes – how things are done –, not just
what is done and it requires more than a focus on government. It also relates to the nature of
relations between state and society. Governance refers to the nature of rules that regulate the
public realm – the space – where state and economic and social factors interact to make
decisions. second, it is possible to identify concepts and principles of good governance that are
universal when we know The particular conditions of each country provide both constraints and
opportunities to improve governance. It is also critical to recognize that there are multiple and
complex relationships between governance and development. Good governance is positively
associated with improved investment and growth rates, government effectiveness, efficient
bureaucracy and rule of law which are associated with better economic performance, adult
literacy. But it negatively associated with infant mortality and corruption which hinders
development.

There are also many indicators of good governance that serve the development like:

• Participation: the degree of involvement by affected stakeholders.

• Fairness: the degree to which rules apply equally to everyone in society.

• Accountability: the extent to which political actors are responsible to society for what they
say and do.
• Transparency: the degree of clarity and openness with which decisions are made.

• Efficiency: the extent to which limited human and financial resources are applied without
unnecessary waste, delay or corruption. We find also that most economists would agree
that governance is one of the critical factors determining the growth prospects of countries.

However, there is considerable controversy about good governance priorities and the types of
governance capabilities that are critical. These disagreements are related to fundamental
disagreements on the role of markets versus other social, political and technological
characteristics that need to be fulfilled for sustainable growth to take off. The contemporary
good governance agenda is based largely on governance capabilities that are required to create
the conditions for markets to be efficient. Good governance came as an alternative to the
existing situation, especially in developing countries with the aim of engaging the non-official
actors which are represented by the civil society and the private sector. In other words, the
reduction of state intervention in the economic sector with the adoption of the capitalist
economy in the most of developing countries.

Public Participation

Public participation (citizen participation) is a political principle or practice, and may also be
recognized as a right. The terms public participation, often called P2 by practitioners, is
sometimes used interchangeably with the concept or practice of stakeholder
engagement and/or popular participation. Generally public participation seeks and facilitates
the involvement of those potentially affected by or interested in a decision. This can be in
relation to individuals, governments, institutions, companies or any other entities that affect
public interests. The principle of public participation holds that those who are affected by a
decision have a right to be involved in the decision-making process. Public participation implies
that the public's contribution will influence the decision. Public participation may be regarded
as a way of empowerment and as vital part of democratic governance. In the context
of knowledge management the establishment of ongoing participatory processes is seen by
some in the facilitator of collective intelligence and inclusiveness, shaped by the desire for the
participation of the whole community or society. Public participation is part of "people centred"
or "human centric" principles, which have emerged in Western culture over the last thirty
years, and has had some bearings of education, business, public policy and international relief
and development programs. Public participation is advanced by the humanist movements.
Public participation may be advanced as part of a "people first" paradigm shift. In this respect
public participation may challenge the concept that "big is better" and the logic of centralized
hierarchies, advancing alternative concepts of "more heads are better than one" and arguing
that public participation can sustain productive and durable change. The role of public
participation in economic and human development was enshrined in the 1990 African Charter
for Popular Participation in Development and Transformation. In 1990 practitioners established
the International Association for Public Practitioners in order to respond to the increasing
interest in the practice, and in turn established the International Association for Public
Participation (IAP2). The practice is well established globally and the International Association
of Public Participation now has affiliate organizations across the globe

Team Work

Teams are formed when individuals with a common taste, preference, liking, and attitude come
and work together for a common goal. Teams play a very important role in organizations as well
as our personal lives. “Coming together is a beginning. Keeping together is progress. Working
together is success-Henry Ford” The above proverb by Henry Ford can very well highlight the
importance of working together in teams.

Every employee is dependent on his fellow employees to work together and contribute
efficiently to the organization. No employee can work alone; he has to take the help of his
colleagues to accomplish the tasks efficiently. It has been observed that the outcome comes out
to be far better when employees work in a team rather than individually as every individual can
contribute in his best possible way. In organizations, individuals having a similar interest and
specializations come together on a common platform and form a team.

A sales team has employees inclined towards branding and marketing activities to promote
their brand. An individual with a human resource specialization would be out of place in such a
team. Research supports that organizations with clearly defined teams are more successful as
compared to those with a one man show. Team work is essential in corporates for better
output and a better bonding among employees.

Service Delivery Mechanism

Service Culture is built on elements of leadership principles, norms, work habits and vision,
mission and values. Culture is the set of overriding principles according to which management
controls, maintains and develops the social process that manifests itself as delivery of service
and gives value to customers. Once a superior service delivery system and a realistic service
concept have been established, there is no other component so fundamental to the long-term
success of a service organization as its culture.

Employee Engagement includes employee attitude activities, purpose driven leadership and HR
processes. Even the best designed processes and systems will only be effective if carried out by
people with higher engagement. Engagement is the moderator between the design and the
execution of the service excellence model.

Service Quality includes strategies, processes and performance management systems. The
strategy and process design is fundamental to the design of the overall service management
model. Helping the client fulfil their mission and supporting them in the pursuit of their
organizational purpose, must be the foundation of any service provider partnership.

Customer Experience includes elements of customer intelligence, account management and

continuous improvements. Perception is king and constantly evaluating how how both
customer and end-user perceive service delivery is important for continuous collaboration.
Successful service delivery works on the basis that the customer is a part of the creation and
delivery of the service and then designs processes built on that philosophy – this is called co-
creation.

Good Governance and Human Rights

Good governance and human rights are mutually reinforcing. Human rights principles provide a
set of values to guide the work of governments and other political and social actors. They also
provide a set of performance standards against which these actors can be held accountable.
Moreover, human rights principles inform the content of good governance efforts: they may
inform the development of legislative frameworks, policies, programmes, budgetary allocations
and other measures. On the other hand, without good governance, human rights cannot be
respected and protected in a sustainable manner. The implementation of human rights relies
on a conducive and enabling environment. This includes appropriate legal frameworks and
institutions as well as political, managerial and administrative processes responsible for
responding to the rights and needs of the population.

Building Democratic Institutions and Institutional Supremacy

Government institutions are democratic only if they are not aristocratic. public offices with life
time appointments are aristocratic and undemocratic. Democratic institutions must serve the
entire population of a country with equality under the law. Contemporary governance debates
often assume the positive contribution of democracy to civil and political equality, poverty
reduction, and conflict resolution. A “democratic institution” is an institution where decisions
are made by majority vote. This is as opposed to a singular leader, group of self-appointed
members, owner(s) or principal(s) who make decisions with ultimate authority.

Sometimes, a “democratic institution” has elected officials who oversee or lead specific aspects
and represent non-voting parties (like the public or other staff).

Institutional imbalance has been one of the major causes of setbacks to democracy, political
instability, and a reason for the worsening of civil-military relations, subordination of judiciary
and politicisation of bureaucracy. When institutions function within their constitutional limits,
and each keeps supremacy of the Constitution before personal or institutional interests, a
formal systemic balance follows. The principle which defines the balance among institutions is
the separation of powers. No democracy can function as a true democracy without separating
powers—legislative, executive and the judicial. This has been a major challenge, a dilemma and
the root cause of all problems that we confront.
It began with the executive bringing the superior judiciary under its sway. Having done this, it
was able to dominate the legislature—parliament, which is assumed to be a sovereign
institution. The executive authoritarianism of early years of independence and the four
interventions, lasting for 30 years, controlled the legislature and the judiciary. The transition to
democracy three times created elected political executives but the system turned out to be
equally authoritarian with concentration of powers in the powerful office of the prime minister.
Both the judiciary and the legislature remained heavily overshadowed by the power and
influence of the prime ministers. Dynastic party structure and personalised control reduced
space for dissent in the name of party discipline. The members of parliament have slavishly
toed the line given to them by the party bosses from defending their corruption and dishonesty
to singing praises for them, their dynastic successors and political positions.