BASIC CONCEPTS OF CT Highlights the disposition to think critically and the skill to use logical methods

effectively.
LESSON 1: MEANING OF CRITICAL T HINKING Robert Ennis: “Reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do.”
Critical thinking involves skilled judgment and observation, enabling clear and
intelligent thought. It encompasses cognitive skills and intellectual dispositions needed • MEANING: Critical thinking involves reflective reasoning to make informed
to identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments and truth claims. It helps overcome biases, decisions and beliefs.
formulate convincing reasons for conclusions, and make informed decisions about Explicitly ties critical thinking to decision-making, emphasizing its practical
beliefs and actions. application.
Critical thinking is more than just intelligence; it is the ability to reason effectively and Richard Paul: “Thinking about any subject in which the thinker improves the quality of
evaluate information clearly, fairly, and objectively. It involves a deliberate process of their thinking by skillfully taking charge of its structures and
analyzing evidence, overcoming biases, and making well-reasoned decisions. By thinking imposing intellectual standards.”
independently and rationally, critical thinking aims to uncover the most reliable and • MEANING: Critical thinking is about self-improvement in thinking by applying
justifiable conclusions, free from emotional influence. This process is essential for intellectual standards.
navigating complex claims and arriving at truthful, well-supported outcomes. Focuses on meta-cognition (thinking about thinking) and self-directed
Now, let’s proceed to the ideas of the philosophers. improvement in reasoning.
John Dewey: “Active, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of Michael Scriven: “Skilled and active interpretation and evaluation of observations,
knowledge in light of the grounds that support it.” communications, information, and argumentation.”
• MEANING: Critical thinking is an active, reflective process that evaluates beliefs •MEANING: Critical thinking involves skilled analysis and evaluation of information
based on evidence and reasoning. and arguments.
Emphasizes active engagement and persistence in questioning and reasoning, Stresses interpretation and evaluation as core skills, linking critical thinking to
contrasting with passive acceptance. academic competency.
Edward Glaser: “An attitude of being disposed to consider problems thoughtfully, Summary of Differences:
knowledge of logical methods, and skill in applying them.”
• MEANING: Critical thinking combines a thoughtful attitude, logical reasoning
skills, and the ability to apply them.
• Dewey: Active, persistent reasoning. • Paul: Meta-cognition and self-improvement.
• Glaser: Disposition + logical skills. • Scriven: Interpretation and evaluation as academic skills.
• Ennis: Decision-making focus.
Critical Thinking as Criticocreative: Combines critical evaluation with creative 4) The Sufficiency Principle: Sufficiency requires that the premises provide enough
imagination to explore alternatives and improve reasoning quality. evidence, both in quantity and quality, to justify the conclusion. The evidence must be
LESSON 2: STANDARDS OF CRITICAL T HINKING relevant, acceptable, and collectively strong enough to support the argument. Questions
Critical thinking is guided by clear intellectual standards that distinguish it from uncritical to consider include: Are the reasons given sufficient to lead to the conclusion? Is there
thinking. These standards ensure that thinking is clear, precise, accurate, relevant, missing evidence that is crucial for acceptance? Sufficiency ensures that arguments are
consistent, logically correct, complete, and fair. By adhering to these criteria, critical convincing and complete.
thinkers can evaluate arguments and claims effectively, leading to well-reasoned and 5) The Rebuttal Principle: A strong argument anticipates and addresses potential
justifiable conclusions. Below, let’s explore each standard in detail. criticisms. The rebuttal principle requires that arguments effectively counter serious
1) Clarity means expressing ideas in a way that is free from obscurity or vagueness. It is objections and alternative viewpoints. This involves identifying the strongest opposing
the foundation of critical thinking because unclear statements cannot be evaluated for arguments, addressing weaknesses in one’s own position, and demonstrating why
accuracy or relevance. Critical thinkers strive for clarity in both language and thought, alternative positions are flawed. Avoiding rebuttal through diversionary tactics, such as
ensuring that their goals, priorities, and understanding of problems are well-defined. attacking the critic or ignoring counterevidence, undermines the argument’s credibility.
2) Precision involves being exact and careful in thought and expression. Critical thinkers By adhering to these principles (structural integrity, relevance, acceptability,
pay close attention to details and seek precise answers to precise questions. This sufficiency, and rebuttal) participants in a discussion can construct and evaluate
standard is crucial for cutting through confusion and addressing problems effectively. arguments effectively, leading to more productive and rational exchanges.
3) Accuracy is about using correct and true information. Critical thinkers prioritize truth 3.2 Principles of Critical Thinking
and reject ideas based on false or misleading data. They understand that decisions Critical thinking is guided by key principles that ensure fair, rational, and productive
grounded in inaccurate information are likely to be flawed. discussions. These principles help participants engage in honest inquiry, seek truth, and
4) Relevance ensures that only ideas and information logically connected to the issue at resolve disputes effectively. Below are the seven core principles of critical thinking, each
hand are considered. Critical thinkers avoid distractions and focus on what truly matters, essential for fostering intellectual integrity and constructive dialogue.
ensuring that their reasoning is directly tied to the problem they are addressing. 1. The Fallibility Principle emphasizes acknowledging one’s own potential for error.
5) Consistency means avoiding contradictions in beliefs and actions. Critical thinkers Participants must accept that their initial views may not be the most defensible and
value logical and practical consistency, recognizing that inconsistent beliefs or behaviors remain open to changing their minds if presented with stronger arguments. Refusing to
undermine the integrity of their reasoning. admit fallibility undermines fair discussion; while embracing it signals a genuine
6) Logical Correctness involves reasoning in a way that conclusions follow logically from commitment to honest inquiry.
the premises. Critical thinkers ensure that their arguments are well-structured and free 2. The Truth-Seeking Principle: Critical thinkers must prioritize the search for truth or the
from illogical connections or contradictions. most defensible position on an issue. This involves seriously considering alternative
7) Completeness requires thorough and deep thinking rather than superficial analysis. viewpoints, welcoming criticisms of one’s own arguments, and engaging in lifelong
While not every situation allows for exhaustive discussion, critical thinkers aim for depth learning. The pursuit of truth requires humility, as it often challenges existing beliefs.
and comprehensiveness whenever possible. 3. The Clarity Principle
8) Fairness demands open-mindedness, impartiality, and freedom from biases. Critical Clear and unambiguous communication is essential for effective discussion. Positions,
thinkers strive to treat all viewpoints equally, recognizing their own potential biases and arguments, and criticisms must be expressed in language that all parties can understand.
working to overcome them. This standard ensures that thinking is balanced and just. Confusing or vague language hinders resolution and prevents meaningful engagement
LESSON 3: CODES OF I NTELLECTUAL CONDUCT FOR EFFECTIVE DISCUSSION with the issue at hand.
A good argument consists of claims that support a conclusion, and critical thinking 4. The Burden of Proof Principle
involves evaluating these arguments using clear intellectual standards. The responsibility to provide evidence for a claim lies with the person making it. If
Effective discussions and arguments require adherence to certain intellectual principles challenged, the claimant must offer supporting arguments. Exceptions exist for widely
to ensure clarity, relevance, and logical soundness. These principles help distinguish good accepted claims, where the burden shifts to the challenger. Failing to provide proof or
arguments from flawed ones and guide participants in constructing and evaluating shifting the burden unjustly constitutes a logical fallacy.
arguments critically. Below, we explore the five key principles of a good argument: 5. The Principle of Charity
structural integrity, relevance, acceptability, sufficiency, and rebuttal. When reformulating an opponent’s argument, it should be presented in its strongest, most
3.1 Principles of Good Argument coherent form, consistent with the arguer’s intent. Misrepresenting an argument weakens
To construct strong arguments and resolve conflicts effectively, participants should follow discussion and delays progress toward truth. Fairness in interpretation is both ethical and
these five principles: practical.
1) The Structural Principle: A good argument must be structurally sound, meaning its 6. The Suspension of Judgment Principle
conclusion logically follows from its premises. The premises should not contradict each If no position is well-supported or if multiple positions are equally strong, judgment
other or the conclusion, and the argument should avoid invalid inferences. A well-formed should be suspended until more evidence is available. In urgent cases, decisions should
argument provides clear reasons that support the conclusion, making it more likely to be be based on weighing potential benefits or harms. Suspending judgment is not an
accepted by others. Structural flaws, such as incompatible premises or conclusions that avoidance tactic but a rational response to insufficient evidence.
violate logical laws, render an argument ineffective. 7. The Resolution Principle
2) The Relevance Principle: Relevance ensures that the premises of an argument directly An issue is resolved when one position is supported by a structurally sound argument that
support the conclusion. A premise is relevant if its truth provides evidence for the uses relevant, acceptable reasons, effectively rebuts criticisms, and justifies its
conclusion. Irrelevant premises, no matter how true, do not contribute to the argument’s conclusion. If new doubts arise due to fresh evidence, the issue should be reopened.
strength. To test relevance, ask: Does this premise make the conclusion more likely to be However, pride in past conclusions should not obstruct reconsideration when warranted.
true? If not, it should be excluded from the argument. Why Issues Often Remain Unresolved
3) The Acceptability Principle: The premises of a good argument must be acceptable to a Despite these principles, many issues remain unresolved due to factors like bias, hidden
rational, mature person. While absolute truth is ideal, acceptability is more practical, as it agendas, emotional attachment to beliefs, or deep-seated disagreements rooted in
reflects what a reasonable person would accept based on available evidence. Premises fundamental assumptions. Genuine resolution requires intellectual honesty, openness to
should be credible and supported by evidence, even if they are not universally true. This change, and a commitment to rational discourse.
principle ensures that arguments are grounded in shared understanding and rationality. LESSON 4: CHARACTERISTICS OF CRITICAL T HINKING
Here we’ll explore the traits that distinguish critical thinkers from uncritical ones, 5. Wishful Thinking
highlighting their attitudes, habits, and approaches to reasoning and problem-solving. Wishful thinking involves believing something because one desires it to be true, rather
4.1 Basic Traits of Critical Thinkers than based on evidence. It often arises from fear, uncertainty, or the desire for comfort.
Critical thinkers exhibit the following characteristics: Examples include:
Intellectual Honesty: They acknowledge their limitations, recognize errors, and admit
• Believing in pseudoscientific claims like psychic powers or miracle cures.
what they don’t know.
Problem-Solving Attitude: They view problems and controversial issues as challenges • Ignoring evidence that contradicts one’s hopes or beliefs.
to be solved rather than threats. Wishful thinking obstructs critical thinking by prioritizing emotions over rationality and
Patience with Complexity: They strive for understanding, remain curious, and invest evidence.1
time to overcome confusion. Conclusion
Evidence-Based Judgment: They base conclusions on evidence, revise views when To overcome the barriers to critical thinking which stem from cognitive biases, social
new evidence arises, and defer judgment when evidence is insufficient. influences, and emotional reasoning requires self-awareness, intellectual humility, and a
Open-Mindedness: They listen attentively to others’ ideas, even when they disagree. commitment to evidence-based reasoning
Fair-Mindedness: They avoid extreme views, seek balanced perspectives, and practice LESSON 5: BENEFITS OF C RITICAL T HINKING
objectivity. Critical thinking offers numerous benefits, both in academic settings and everyday life. It
Self-Control: They manage their emotions, think before acting, and avoid impulsive equips individuals with the skills to analyze, evaluate, and solve problems effectively,
decisions. fostering independence and intellectual growth. This lesson explores the advantages of
4.2 Basic Traits of Uncritical Thinkers critical thinking, focusing on its role in education, personal decision-making, and societal
Uncritical thinkers display the following tendencies: progress.
Intellectual Arrogance: They pretend to know more than they do, ignore their Lesson Overview
limitations, and assume their views are error-free. Critical thinking is essential for navigating complex issues, making informed decisions,
Avoidance of Challenges: They see problems and controversies as nuisances or and fostering personal and societal growth. It teaches individuals to question
threats to their ego. assumptions, evaluate evidence, and develop well-reasoned conclusions. This lesson
Impatience with Complexity: They prefer confusion over the effort required to highlights the benefits of critical thinking in the classroom, personal life, and broader
understand complex issues. societal contexts.
Impulsive Judgment: They rely on first impressions, gut reactions, and cling to their Critical Thinking: Skills and Dispositions
views without evidence. Critical thinking cultivates essential skills and dispositions, such as:
Self-Centeredness: They focus on their own opinions, dismiss others’ views, and seek • Identifying and formulating clear, precise questions and problems.
to refute rather than understand.
Bias and Extremism: They favor views that align with their beliefs and ignore the need • Gathering and assessing relevant information to develop reasoned
for balance. conclusions.
Emotional Reactivity: They act impulsively, driven by feelings rather than reasoned • Testing solutions against relevant criteria and standards.
thought.
Conclusion
• Remaining open-minded to alternative perspectives and evaluating one’s own
assumptions.
Critical thinkers are characterized by intellectual honesty, open-mindedness, and a
commitment to evidence-based reasoning. In contrast, uncritical thinkers are often self- • Communicating effectively to solve complex problems collaboratively.
centered, impulsive, and resistant to new ideas. Understanding these traits helps These skills are central to university education, which emphasizes independent, self-
individuals cultivate the habits and attitudes necessary for effective critical thinking. directed thinking over rote memorization. Developing critical thinking requires effort and
LESSON 5: BARRIERS TO CRITICAL T HINKING practice, but it ultimately leads to greater intellectual confidence and competence.
Critical thinking is essential for rational decision-making, but several barriers often hinder Critical Thinking in the Classroom
its practice. These barriers include cognitive biases, social influences, and flawed In university, critical thinking shifts the focus from what you know to how you acquire and
reasoning patterns. This lesson explores five major obstacles to critical evaluate knowledge. It enhances classroom performance by teaching students to:
thinking: egocentrism, sociocentrism, unwarranted assumptions, relativistic Understand Arguments and Beliefs: Grasp complex material by analyzing and
thinking, and wishful thinking. interpreting arguments effectively.
1. Egocentrism Evaluate Critically: Assess the validity of ideas and arguments presented in class
Egocentrism is the tendency to view reality as centered on oneself, prioritizing one’s own or readings.
interests, ideas, and values over others. It manifests in two common forms: Develop and Defend Arguments: Construct well-supported arguments and defend
them convincingly, as required in essays, debates, and discussions.
• Self-Interested Thinking: Accepting beliefs that align with personal benefits,
Critical thinking skills are transferable, meaning they can be applied across subjects and
even if they lack objective justification. For example, professionals may
real-life contexts, such as judging the credibility of sources or making reasoned decisions.
support policies that favor their own interests, such as doctors opposing
Critical Thinking in Life
malpractice lawsuits.
Beyond the classroom, critical thinking enriches personal and societal life in three key
• Superiority Bias: Overrating oneself, believing one is better than others in ways:
certain respects. This bias leads to overconfidence and resistance to self- Avoiding Poor Decisions: Critical thinking helps individuals make informed choices
improvement. about careers, relationships, and behaviors, reducing the likelihood of regrettable
Egocentrism undermines critical thinking by promoting selfish reasoning and discouraging decisions.
objective evaluation of evidence. Promoting Democracy: Informed and rational decision-making is vital for
2. Sociocentrism democratic processes. Critical thinking enables citizens to evaluate policies, vote
Sociocentrism is group-centered thinking, where individuals prioritize their group’s beliefs wisely, and address societal issues like corruption, environmental destruction, and
and values over others. It often leads to: human rights violations.
• Group Bias: Viewing one’s own group (nation, culture, or community) as Personal Enrichment: Critical thinking encourages individuals to question societal
inherently superior to others, fostering prejudice and intolerance. norms and assumptions, leading to a more examined and self-directed life. It
fosters intellectual independence, freeing people from unexamined biases and
• Conformism: Unthinkingly following group norms or authority, even when cultural ideologies.
they conflict with personal judgment. This desire to belong can suppress Chapter Summary
independent thinking and rational decision-making. Critical thinking involves skilled judgment and observation, enabling clear and intelligent
Sociocentrism distorts critical thinking by encouraging blind loyalty to group ideologies thought. It encompasses a range of cognitive skills and intellectual dispositions necessary
and discouraging individual reasoning. to identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments and truth claims. Critical thinking helps
3. Unwarranted Assumptions and Stereotypes individuals overcome personal biases, formulate well-reasoned conclusions, and make
Unwarranted assumptions are beliefs accepted without evidence, while stereotypes are informed decisions about beliefs and actions.
oversimplified generalizations about groups. Both hinder critical thinking by: Being intelligent does not automatically mean one can think critically. Critical thinking is a
• Hasty Generalizations: Drawing broad conclusions from limited or biased deliberate process; a journey; that guides individuals to evaluate claims and arrive at the
experiences, such as assuming all members of a group share the same traits. most useful and truthful conclusions. It emphasizes clear, fair, rational, objective, and
independent thinking, ensuring decisions are based on impartial investigation of facts,
• Distorting Reality: Ignoring individual differences and perpetuating false or
free from emotional influence.
misleading beliefs.
As part of logic, critical thinking teaches the principles of sound reasoning that rational
Critical thinkers must recognize and challenge unwarranted assumptions and stereotypes
beings should follow. This chapter explored the characteristics of critical and uncritical
to avoid flawed reasoning.
thinkers, the criteria for critical thinking, the components of a good argument, and related
4. Relativistic Thinking
concepts essential for developing effective reasoning skills.
Relativistic thinking asserts that truth is subjective or culturally determined, denying
objective standards. It takes two main forms:
• Subjectivism: Truth is based on individual opinion. For example, if someone
believes abortion is wrong, it is true for them, regardless of evidence.
• Cultural Relativism: Truth is determined by societal or cultural beliefs. For
instance, drinking wine may be considered immoral in one culture but
acceptable in another.
While relativism promotes tolerance, it undermines critical thinking by dismissing
objective truth and rational inquiry. It also fails to resolve moral disagreements or promote
universal ethical standards.