SOCIOLOGY

MODULE – 1

The term “Sociology”

• Comte Combined two terms:

1. “Socius” (La5n for Society) &
2. “Logos” (Greek for Studying)
• It literally means ‘study of society’.

Durkheim (1858 – 1917)

• Defined Sociology as “The study of social facts which are the collec2ve ways of feeling, thinking,
and ac2ng.”

Weber (1864 – 1920)

• Defined Sociology as “The study of social ac2on and social rela2onship”

The reasons to Study Sociology: (Emergence of Sociology)

• It emerged somewhere in Europe during 1839 (1838).

• In Industrial Revolu5on, Renaissance, seLng up new ci5es (Urbaniza5on), French Revolu5on, rise of
Na5onalism in Europe, American war of Independence, Glorious revolu5on & Feudalism (Agrarian
Economy) (Substance Economy).
• A)er the industrial revolu7on mass market produce started, when there is large scale of produce,
then you’ll have to expand your market, (expansion of market), (sea trade route).
Trade brought language, police, clergy, tradi5on, concept of colonialism they started to colonize the
masses for their benefits.
• So, there was a need of a specialized subject to give answer to the new problems.
• Anonymity leads to stalking, bullying, drug addic5on.
• The Dark Age was when the church was above all and no one was able to ques5on it.

On Own:

Factors Responsible for Emergence of Sociology as a subject:

 1. Renaissance The Renaissance brought scien5fic interest back to widespread aXen5on, which
contributed to the atmosphere in which sociology developed. The reforma5on affected religious
beliefs in society, which pertains to sociology as some of the early sociologists focused their work on
the effects of religion.
2. 18th and 19th Century:
Industrial Revolu7on and French Revolu7on reshape society. Saint Simon, Auguste Comte, and
others analyze societal changes.
Comte coined the term "sociology" and emphasized social ins5tu5ons. Comte's "Posi5ve
Philosophy" advocates the crea5on of a dis5nct science of society. Sociology born as a response to
the intellectual endeavor prompted by societal transi5ons.
3. Enlightenment:
It helped in the development of secular, scien5fic and humanis5c aLtudes of mind during the late
17th and 18th centuries. This is because ‘enlightenment’ posi5oned the human being as the central
figure of the universe, with ra5onal thought at its core. Ra5onal and cri5cal thinking transformed
human beings into both producer and user of all knowledge. Those who did not adopt the new
ways of thinking and reasoning were deemed as deficient and primi5ve. This development
influenced society as it was a product of human interac5on. Thus, it helped sociology to grow as a
ra5onal and scien5fic subject with cri5cal analysis.
4. Urbaniza7on
Partly as a result of the industrial revolu5on, large numbers of people were uprooted from rural
areas and they migrated to urban seLngs. This massive shi` was caused because of jobs created by
the new industrial set up in urban areas. However, this migra5on and expansion of ci5es resulted in
endless problems such as overcrowding, pollu5on, traffic, lack of health care, growth of slums, etc.
Urbaniza5on is the process of seLng of new ci5es and movement. Changes the whole demographic
of the na5on. Increases popula5on in ci5es, brings opportuni5es and drawbacks.
Example: Good schools, hospitals and industries.

Contributors of sociology

• Sociology was previously known as social physics.

• Because most of the thinkers were scien5sts and are from science background.

St Simon (1760-1825)

• He was a father in a church.

• He was one of the ini5al contributors of sociology.
• Before it was coming out of philosophy.
 • He coined the term social physiology, His Sociology focused on the concept of social physiology,
where reason, science, intelligence, and ra5onality would produce a stable society.

His Pupil

1) Auguste Comte (1978 – 1857)

• Defined Sociology as “Abstract and theore2cal science of Social phenomena.”
• It is a social science to deal with society as a whole.
• Known as Father of Sociology
• He was a French person and a scien5st.
• He was influenced by the words of Sir Isaac Newton, laws of mo5on.

• In the same line he gave “Posi2ve Philosophy” (3 vol, book), I.e. law of three stages.

Law of Three Stages

Stage 1, Theological Stage:

It is very old and most primi5ve stage, in these individuals believed that everything that happened was the
will of God. Human beings believed that behind every occurrence there is supernatural power.

• Animism: refers to the belief that non-human en55es are spiritual beings, either intrinsically or
because spirits inhabit them for a period of 5me. (Firstly, humans worship nature, spirits, ghosts)
• Polytheism: It is the belief in more than one god, people created names of mul5ple gods, Hinduism
and Greek mythology can be an example of this.
• Monotheism: It is the belief in one God oneness of God this was a journey to one singular god,
Chris5anity and Islam is the example of this.

Stage 2, Meta-Physical stage:

In this stage people believed in God however they do not explain everything which happens in the society
was the will of God and most problem took place due to the inadequacy of humans.

• This was a transi7onary stage; it would not remain forever.

• Started ques5oning and had doubts and queries.
• The answer was not reached, only the ques5ons were raised and was challenged.

Stage 3, Posi7ve/Scien7fic Stage: In this stage every social phenomenon was explained by the scien5fic
findings and empirical research.

• This stage was going to remain forever science is going to be the supreme.
 • Scien5sts/Researchers: Superior. The religious head is there but is not supreme.

Posi7vism: According to Comte, Posi5vism is absolutely intellectual way to determine social phenomenon,
there is no place for supernatural power in it. In this stage religion became less predominant and scien5fic
methods became more predominant in obtaining knowledge.

• Focused on: Methodology of Study, Usage of Science for Study of Society, E.g. Test, Verifica5on &
Lack of Human Error.
• Auguste Comte and Durkheim applied empiricism to the social sciences, claiming that society can be
studied like nature and that the rules of social existence can be shown using natural science
techniques like observa5on, categoriza5on, evalua5on, experimenta5on, and sta5s5cs.

Empiricism (Individual 1st Hand Data.)

It refers to using empirical techniques in scien5fic inquiry. It is a way of thinking about knowledge that
says the only way to know anything is through direct experience through the senses.

Social StaOc and Social Dynamic:

Auguste Comte divided sociology into two major parts, namely, sta5c and dynamic sociology. The idea of
this division is borrowed from biology, which is in keeping with his no5ons of a hierarchy of sciences.

1. Social StaOc
• Stable/Permanent; Does not change
• It is sta5c in all parts of 5mes of society
 • It focuses on how order is maintained in the society.

Comte iden5fies language, religion, and division of labor as crucial elements for social stability. According to
him:

• Language: Essen5al for communica5on and community bonding. It facilitates the transfer of
knowledge and skills across genera5ons, fostering solidarity and social order.
• Religion: Acts as a posi5ve guide, compensa5ng for language limita5ons by uni5ng society through
common beliefs. It provides moral guidance, preven5ng societal disintegra5on and serving as the
founda5on of social order.
• Division of Labor: Creates interdependence by binding society through classes. While essen5al for
state coopera5on, there is a risk of individuals priori5zing personal interests, poten5ally leading to a
weakened connec5on with the broader community.

2. Social Dynamics
• It deals with phenomena of change in society.
• It keeps on changing.
• Comte placed greater emphasis on the study of social dynamics, or social change.
• His theory of social dynamics is founded on the law of the three stages.
• It begins with the study of the process of social changes. Therefore, it is concerned with the maXer
of social progress.
• According to Comte, social dynamics describe the successive and necessary stages in the
development in the human mind and the society.
E.g. Evolu5on of Laws, Technological Advancements, Educa5onal reforms, Globalisa5on and
Interna5onal laws. Etc
2) Herbert Spencer 1820-1903:
1. Organic Analogy
2. Concept of Func8onalism Simple
3. Social Darwinism (Theory of Evolu8on) Compounded
4. Lassiez Faire Doubly Compounded
5. No interven8on Tribley Compounded
6. Simple to Complex
(Militant) (industrialist)

• Spencer was Ini5ally Educated by parents, later he became engineer in Bri5sh railway.
• But he was inclined towards wri5ng and he wrote his first book that was Social sta7c (which was
appreciated by radicals).
• Hit second book was principles of psychology (unappreciated).
• Other Books: >Principles of Biology
> Principles of Sociology
> Study of Sociology
> Synthe5c Philosophy
Organic Analogy:

• Human beings compared with society. In the society there are different ins5tu5ons, all these
ins5tu5ons have different func5ons comparison between these ins5tu5ons.
• Concept of Interdependent: Dependent on each other.
• Example: educa5on is independent, na5ons growth is
dependent on good educa5on. Spencer and particularly
Durkheim’s ideas grew in
• Spencer maintains that we can understand society best, if we popularity during the 1950s and
compare it with an organism. He thinks that society is like a 1960s, partly due to the
resurgence in conservative values
biological system, a greater organism, alike in its structure
in the USA and were developed
and its func5ons. Like an organism society is subject to the by an American called Talcott
same process of gradual growth or development from a Parsons (1902-7979).
simple to complex state. Like any organism, society also
exhibits “differen2a2on in func2ons and integra2on
structure.”

• In this connec5on, it must be noted that Spencer does not subscribe to the view that society is an
organism; he maintains it only as an analogy.
• As humans started at simple sense and later become complex humans, similarly society started with
simple humans and slowly became compounded (clan) and at last tribly compounded (tribe)

Concept of func7onalism, func7onalism school of Thought

• Each component of society has a par5cular role, example Sa5 system and its abolishment,
• Gives emphasis on order and stability, coexistence
• Everything in society has a purpose
• These are not in conflict; they are interconnected and interdependent.
Func7onalism was 'founded' by French sociologist, Émile Durkheim. Further key theorists of this
sociological perspec5ve were Talco[ Parsons and Robert Merton. They established func5onalist arguments
in several areas of sociological research, including educa5on, family forma5on and social inequality.
In func5onalist theory, the different parts of society are primarily composed of social ins5tu5ons, each
designed to fill different needs. Family, government, economy, media, educa5on, and religion are important
to understanding this theory and the core ins5tu5ons that define sociology. According to func5onalism, an
ins5tu5on only exists because it serves a vital role in the func5oning of society. If it no longer serves a role,
an ins5tu5on will die away. When new needs evolve or emerge, new ins5tu5ons will be created to meet
them.
Social Darwinism:

• Based on survival of the fiXest by Charles Darwin

• Whatever the wrong is happening in the state is it is not the fault of the state, the state is not to
blame, it is a des5ny of the weak people to die. example Jalia Walla Bagh
• They use social Darwinism to jus5fy their inhuman act.
® Simple: Separate Family unit
® Compounded: Families into Clans
® Doubly Compounded: Clans into Tribes
® Trebly Compounded: Tribes into a Na5on
It believed that the process of natural selec5on ac5ng on varia5ons in the popula5on would result in
the survival of the best compe5tors and in con5nuing improvement in the popula5on. Socie5es were
viewed as organisms that evolve in this manner.
Spencer’s theory of social evolu7on points out to two stages:
1. The movement from simple to compound socie5es.
2. Change from militant society to industrial society.
The movement from simple to compound socie5es—This is seen in four types of socie5es in terms of
evolu5onary levels.
1. Simple Society:
Spencer defined the simple society as “one which forms a single working whole un-subjected to any
other and of which the parts co-operate with or without a regula5ng center for certain public ends.”
These socie5es were predominantly small, nomadic, and lacking in stable rela5onship structure. They
had low degrees of differen5a5on, specializa5on, and integra5on. Examples are the Eskimos, the
Fuegians, Guiana tribes, the new Caledonians and the Pueblo Indians.
2. Compound Socie7es:
Compound socie5es were presented as having generally come about through either a peaceful or a
violent merger of two or more simple socie5es. They tended to be predominantly seXled agricultural
socie5es, although a majority are mainly pastoral, and tended to be characterised by a division of four
or five social strata and an organised priestly group. They are also characterised by Industrial structures
that show in advancing division of labour, general and local. Examples are the Teutonic peoples in the
fi`h century, Homeric Greeks, Zew Zealanders, HoXentots Dahomans and Ashantees.
3. Doubly Compound Socie7es:
Doubly compound socie5es were completely seXled, were more integrated and a larger and more
definite poli5cal structure, a religious hierarchy, a more or less rigid caste system and more complex
division of labour. Furthermore, in such socie5es to a greater and lesser extent, custom has passed into
posi5ve law and religious observances have grown definite, rigid and complex. Towns and roads have
become general, and considerable progress in knowledge and the arts has taken place.” Examples are
thirteen-Century France, Eleventh Century England, the Spartan Confederacy, the ancient Peruvians and
the Guatemalans.
4. Trebly Compound Socie7es:
It includes “the great civilized na5ons” such as the Assyrian Empire, the modern Great Britain, France,
Germany, Italy and Russia. Spencer does not outline their traits in detail but points to their increased
overall size, complexity, division of labour, popular density, integra5on and general cultural complexity.
Militant to Industrial;
 Spencer dis5nguished between "militant" and "industrial" socie5es. In a militant society, coopera5on is
compulsory, akin to an army where orders must be followed under penalty of death. This compulsory
coopera5on requires a strict hierarchy to prevent chaos. Such socie5es are marked by status-based
systems prevalent in ancient 5mes.
On the other hand, an industrial society operates on voluntary coopera5on, where individuals agree to
specific terms and can freely leave if dissa5sfied. This voluntary coopera5on is facilitated through
contracts, leading to a regime of contract prevalent in modern Western na5ons like Britain and the
United States. While businesses may have hierarchies, obedience to orders is fundamentally voluntary,
as workers can opt to quit. Thus, industrial socie5es are based on contractual rela5onships rather than
status.

Laissez-faire (No Interven7on)

• Modern society: liberty, Freedom, co-existence and heterogeneous

• Simple society: Strong military because of fear is the only factor it is like a tribal society.
In the economic arena, Spencer advocated a laissez-faire system that tolerated no government
regula5on of private enterprise. He considered most taxa5on as confisca5on of wealth and
undermining the natural evolu5on of society.

CriOcism:
• Spencer’s support of a “laissez-faire” philosophy was also ques5oned at the beginning of the 20th
century, when war, infla5on, unemployment, etc., were causing chaos in Europe and the United
States. As a result, more and more people thought that society and poli5cs needed to be controlled
by ra5onale.
• Herbert Spencer’s idea that society is a super-organic system was flawed in many ways. He couldn’t
see how culture fit into the world as a whole. His explana5on of how socie5es change from simple
to complex was also incorrect.

• Timasheff says that because his law of evolution is a cosmic law, his theory is strictly philosophical
and not sociological.
• Critics said he made what is now called the “naturalistic fallacy,” which is the mistake of trying to
find morality and ethics in nature.
• According to some social thinkers Herbert Spencer’s theory lacks practicability. It is not
practical and realistic. Even today there are several tribes and aboriginals that do not show
any sign of evolution.
• It also lacks uniformity. It is not possible to have a uniform pattern of social evolution in all
societies. Because the factors and circumstances responsible for evolution differ from one
another.
• Mere survival for existence is not enough for man. In human society qualities like
sympathy, sacrifice, kindness, love etc. are also present. These are quite different from
struggle for existence.
In spite of the above criticisms made by some of the social thinkers, Spencer’s theory of social
evolution is a master key to the riddles of the universe.

hXps://www.yourar5clelibrary.com/sociology/herbert-spencers-theory-of-social-evolu5on-explained-with-
diagram/43739#:~:text=of%20evolu5onary%20levels.-
,1.,lacking%20in%20stable%20rela5onship%20structure.
Emile Durkheim: (1858-1917)
Books:
The Division of Labor in Society (1893), The Rules of Sociological Method (1895), Suicide (1897) and The
Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912).

® Social fact, (collec5ve consciousness)

® Sui Generis
® Func5onalist school
® Crime is a necessary evil
® Theory of division of labor
® Mechanical solidarity
® Organic solidarity
® Theory of suicide:
1. egois5c,
2. altruis5c,
3. anomic
® The element form of religious life
He was the first official professor of sociology. A French person, at the 5me France was the symbol of liberal
society, He is known as the founding contributor of sociology.
Collec7ve consciousness

• There is some kind of commonality, you iden5fy as those commonali5es. The Society wants to
maintain those collec5ve commonali5es. SeXle disputes as a collec5ve unit.
• Even if you don’t want to do it some5me but you have to do it, for social acceptance, not to get
excommunicated, as society cannot work as a disrup5ve unit.
• Example, reduc5on of age bar in juvenile offenders.
• Durkheim defines collec5ve consciousness as the reason why and how individuals who are different
can come together and form a society. This is because collec5ve consciousness refers to a set of
common beliefs, values, and behaviours that are found within a society.
Social Fact:

• Social customs are taken as it is, you don’t get to choose. Group Coerciveness.
• It is imposed on individual, example: black dress for lawyers
• It has been there so we have to accept it, beyond the individual choice and it is external and
coercive.
• Example: Russia Ukraine War, Israel Pales5ne War, if there was a collec5ve consciousness it will be
resolved,
• Posi7ve example: G20, made for interest of everyone.
• Collec5ve consciousness it’s strong because of the ins5tu5on and not the individual.

So according to Durkheim, Sociology is a study of insOtuOon.

Ins7tu7on:
Collec5ve ways of Doing things.
Social Facts of things:

• Durkheim defined social facts as things external to, and coercive of, the actor. These are created
from collec5ve forces and do not emanate from the individual.
• Taking things at Substance
Sui Generis:

• Society as a thing in itself, something of its own kind, or a thing apart. Durkheim’s view was that
society has an existence of its own, apart from the individuals in it, and is thus a proper object of
study.
• Things that have been on its own, the Origin of these Prac5ces/Customs can’t be tracked.

Theory of Suicide:
• Suicide is a social problem, caused of social facts and not Individuals. According to Durkheim,
suicide is not an individual act nor a personal ac5on.
• Suicide as primarily a social phenomenon in terms of the breakdown of the vital bond of life.
Types of Suicide:
Emile Durkheim classified different types of suicides on the basis of different types of rela5onship between
the actor and his society.
(1) Egois7c suicide:

• According to Durkheim, when a man becomes socially isolated or feels that he has no place in
the society he destroys himself. This is the suicide of self-centred person who lacks altruis5c
feelings and is usually cut off from main stream of the society.
• Lack of Social Integra5on, need to learn to face the failure, man is isolated, need social support
to cope.

(2) Altruis7c suicide:

• This type of suicide occurs when individuals and the group are too close and in5mate. This
kind of suicide results from the over integra5on of the individual into social proof, for
example - Sa5 customs.
• Doing it for others, Strong Social integra5on, Strongly Socially regulated, you enjoy your
death, thinking you are doing it for a good cause. You will be rewarded, (glorified by society
for the larger cause)
• E.g. Soldiers

(3) Anomic suicide:

• This type of suicide is due to certain breakdown of social equilibrium, such as, suicide a`er
bankruptcy or a`er winning a loXery. In other words, anomic suicide takes place in a
situa5on which has cropped up suddenly.
• Normlessness, you don’t know that to do, there is no control, there is no purpose of living,
Weak Social Regula5on leads to mayhem, chaos, and bloodbath.
 • E.g.: Kibbutz system: it's a community where people voluntarily live and work together on a
noncompe55ve basis. Sense of community: Kibbutzim are known for their strong sense of
community, with residents sharing resources and working together to achieve common
goals, taking care of children and old people in a common hall.

(4) Fatalis7c suicide:

• This type of suicide is due to overregula5on in society. Under the overregula5on of a society,
when a servant or slave commits suicide, when a barren woman commits suicide, it is the
example of fatalis5c suicide.
• These individuals are placed under extreme rules or high expecta5ons are set upon them,
which removes a person’s sense of self or individuality.
• Strong Social Regula5on, individual choice,
• E.g. Thallai Koothal: the tradi5onal prac5ce of senicide (killing of the elderly) or involuntary
euthanasia, by their own family members, Also, Leaving Elderly people in Mathura and
Vrindavan.

Division of Labour by Durkheim

Durkheim argues that the division of labour serves social and economic purposes. “The division of labour
can take place only among members of a pre-exis5ng society,” Durkheim believed that the division of
labour is propor5onal to a society’s moral or dynamic density. He describes it as a combina5on of a group’s
or society’s popula5on density and level of socialisa5on.
Durkheim states there are two types of social solidarity: organic and mechanical.
1. Mechanical Solidarity: (simple division of labour)
• Mechanical solidarity means that there is no mediator between the individual and society.
That means that society functions as a group. Everyone in the group does the same things
and shares their central beliefs.
• Rural Society, Homogeneous in nature, repressive laws, Strong integration and close
bonding.
• Independence because of religion and custom.
• A repressive law is a legal system where anyone who breaks the law faces severe
punishment. People in mechanical societies have a strong collective conscience or set of
social values upon which to build their laws. That is why such a law is prevalent within
mechanical solidarity.

2. Organic Solidarity: (Complex/complicated division of Labour)

• It is a system with diverse functions linked together by specific relationships
• The job or task that each person does and the ways they act are unique
• Restitutive laws demand a criminal compensate for the harm he caused to others due to his
actions. Restitutive Law concentrates on the victim when there is a crime because there are
no commonly held opinions about what causes harm to society.
• Urban Society, Heterogenous in nature, Independence is higher because of interest, division
of labour in multiple departments (leading to specialisation).
In modern 7mes, people will move from Mechanical Solidarity to Organic Solidarity.

The Elementary Forms of Religious Life

• Religion is the most powerful adhesive force. Religion brings people together.
• Purpose of religion is peace.
• Totemism is the most elementary form of religion. In totemism, a clan believes that they are
descended from a plant or animal, which they worship and revere.
• It carries a symbolic value; it can be animate or inanimate. It is Sacred and Profane. It is u5lised by
society at large.
• Durkheim aXributes the development of religion to the emo5onal security aXained through
communal living. His study of totemic socie5es in Australia led to a conclusion that the animal or
plant that each clan worshipped as a sacred power was in fact that society itself. According to
Durkheim, early humans associated such feelings not only with one another, but as well with
objects in their environment. This, Durkheim believed, led to the ascrip5on of human sen5ments
and superhuman powers to these objects, in turn leading to totemism.
• E.g. Australian Tribe, Ganesh Pooja history, Guru Granth Saheb in modern 5mes.

Crime as a necessary Evil

• Crime is a nega5ve term but here it is shown as posi5ve as it is considered as a func5onal thing.
• Crime is viola5on of law/legal wrong, Crime is an act which is punishable by the law of the land,
eg: Liquor ban in Gujarat.
• Anyone who is doing any unusual ac5vity other than prescribed ac5vity it will be Deviant act.
• Each one of us are Deviant but not a criminal. He recognized deviance as important to the well-
being of society and proposed that challenges to established moral and legal laws (deviance and
crime, respec5vely) acted to unify those that were not in opposi5on to the laws.
• Durkheim held was that deviance and crime also help to promote social change, by developing
new laws and amending previous laws.
• There is no society that is crime free, a crime free society will be a Utopian idea which isn’t
possible in reality. Crime also helps in crea5on of jobs, Eg: Security guards, Cops.
• Because of all these reasons, Crime is necessary and Func5onal
Criticisms:

• Social facts should not be reified and treated as social objects, but rather defined as arrangements
of practices . Additionally, Durkheim's interpretation of social facts as things has been criticized for
neglecting the power of ideas and norms, and being materialistic and deterministic .
• Durkheim doesn’t state which level of crime is the right amount, Just because crime has a function
in society does not necessarily mean that society is deliberately creating crime in order for the
functions of it to be prevalent. It doesn’t focus on how crime affects individuals or groups in society.
It also doesn’t recognise that crime can weaken solidarity and increase isolation – most women stay
in at night due to the fear of rape.
• Durkheim fails to adequately address the ecological fallacy of studying suicide rates to understand
individual behaviour.
• Durkheim's understanding of religion as a necessarily social phenomenon. Religion originates in
society where the "collective effervescence “of ritual gives religious practices and beliefs extra-
human power. Durkheim relies on accounts of "primitive cultures" for his theory and argues that
the totem of the society reflects the society as a whole and thus becomes bigger than any one
 person and the society itself. The power of the sacred totem comes from the society. Critics would
argue that religion does not necessarily have to be social. For example, ascetic traditions that
prioritize isolation and solitude would not fit Durkheim's theory.
• For Durkheim all of life is divided between the sacred and the profane and society maintains the
boundaries between the two. But in many ways the sacred and the profane are not so easily
bounded. They ooze into one another in daily life.

Max Weber (1864 – 1920) (Symbolic Interac7onist School)

German Scholar
Not only in Sociology but also mul5ple other Disciplines:
a) Poli5cal Science
b) Legal Jurisprudence
c) Management. Etc
Concept of “Ideal Type”

• Ideal (Highest form), It is a par5cular benchmark which you create for the society,
• To aspire to achieve the ideal type, Society creates an Ought to Be, Like. Caste-free society,
discrimina5on free society. Etc.
• A yard s5ck measurement.
• Defini5on: An Ideal type is an analy5cal construct that serves inves5gator as a measuring rod/scale
to ascertain similari5es as well as devia5ons in concrete cases. Example, seLng up target is an ideal
type and measuring how close you’re to achieve it. Like laws of aXrac5on.
• Ideal type can be at individual as well as higher level, its about keeping a target and working
towards the target to achieve it.
• It is a kind of abstract model which is created by Max Weber and it is useful in the standard
comparison which enables the person to look at the original aspect of the real world more clearly
and in a more systema5c way. It is a constructed ideal used to approximate reality by selec5ng and
accentua5ng certain elements. This is commonly arranged or constructed as a one-sided point of
view.
Three types of Ideal type:
1. Ideal type of Historical Reali5es: The historical ideal type is related to the reali0es that have been seen or
found in history. The modern capitalist market is one example of a historical ideal type.
2. Ideal type which refers to abstract elements of the historical reality: that are observable in a variety of
historical and cultural contexts such as ‘bureaucracy’ or ‘feudalism’
3. Ideal types ‘that cons5tute ra5onalizing reconstruc5ons of a par5cular kind of behaviour. This includes
changing and moulding behaviour for acceptance. Eg: Moot court. Focuses on how individuals would behave
under certain ideal condi0ons.

Max Weber v. Durkihem

According to Durkheim, things need to be taken as it is and there is no clarity and no individual interpreta0on. Lacks
Subjec0vity. [Macro Sociology]

According to Weber: Every ac0vity carried out by an individual have different meanings, he focuses on subjec0vity
and is concerned with individuals understanding. [Micro Sociology]

• Every ac0vity has different meaning as for the individual. Eg: Blind men and elephant in the room
• Here different meanings are associated with the same act as per the individual’s understanding.
 • Different ac0vity by individual as per the individual’s interpreta0on of the situa0on.
• There is a need to understand the en0re picture.

Eg: Playing for one hour straight and geOng really thirsty, drinking water aggressively, when someone else looks
they will judge them without knowing that the other person is really thirsty. This shows different individual
interpreta0ons of the same situa0on.

Defining Sociology by Weber:

“Sociology… is a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order thereby
to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects.”

• This means the comprehending or understanding in social sciences. We can understand the ac0on and
comprehend the subjec0ve inten0on of the actors.
• Sociology seeks to understand social structures by dissec0ng social processes into meaningful individual
ac0ons.

Max Weber's Verstehen

Max Weber's sociology theory focuses on how certain ac0ons and behaviors "make sense" to agents in society. He
used the German term verstehen, which translates to "understanding," in order to characterize his approach to
studying social rela0ons and ac0ons.

2 Ways:

1. It facilitates direct learning of human ac0on.

2. It facilitates understanding of underlying mo0ves.

Link this With concept of ideal type, Example: Not teaching in class and gossiping by the teacher, this can have two
interpreta0ons:

a. In the short term it will have mul0ple meaning like not in the mood to teach or 0red.
b. In the long run one par0cular note is that something is wrong.

Value Neutrality By Weber:

• Value neutrality is the ethical duty and prac0ce of maintaining impar0ality and remaining unbiased and
judgment-free during the interpreta0on and publishing of research findings.
• It is difficult for human beings not a machine we are, it is influenced by behavior and also influenced by our
own surroundings. As humans we carry bias.
• Eg: giving Judgement, (uncle judge) Par0es are known to the judge,
• Human should perform act as a judge, what you expect a judge to do, keep the emo0ons and influence aside
and decide on the merits.
• Ethically, sociologists should report whatever they find, even if it goes against their personal values and even
if they don’t agree with or like the findings.
• A person can be a good advocate for himself and the best judge for others, before judging don’t be biased
and know the complete background. One need to learn unlearn and relearn to change biased aOtude.
• Eg: India – China Conflict: both party biased, no scope for Dialouge.
• Eg; Jus0ce Khanna: Dissen0ng opinion on Indira Gandhi (during emergency)

Concept of Social Ac5on (Ra5onalisa5on)

There are 4 Types:

 1. Zweckra5onal ac0on are the ac0ons that are planned and need to be taken afer fixing a rela0ve goal to be
achieved. In the en0re purpose of the social ac0on is to achieve that goal for example sledging or trolling.
2. Wertra5onal Ac0on Fit is value-oriented ac0on, ac0on is defined because of the value that you carry. This
ac0on occurs when individuals use ra0onal with values – that is effec0ve means to achieve goals or ends.
Doing the ac0ons as per the value you inherit. Example Gandhi, he has values to achieve his goals that
become a symbol of self-purifica0on.
3. Affec5ve ac0on merges means and ends, driven by emo0on and impulse. Unlike ra0onal ac0on, it lacks calm
assessment of the rela0onship between means and ends. Instead, the means themselves are emo0onally
fulfilling and may become ends in themselves. This type of ac0on arises from the emo0onal state of the
actor. Eg: Love and Jealousy leading to possessive behaviour and Acid Aiacks.
4. Tradi5onal Ac0on occurs when the ends and the means of ac0on are fixed by custom and tradi0on. This is an
ac0on which is guided by customs and long standing beliefs which become second nature or habit. (eg: the
concept of ‘Dharma’ – righteousness) Judgement: Ram Janam Bhumi- Hinduism is a way of life and not just a
religion.

Concept of Power and Authority:

• Power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others, not only physical but influence, financial, muscular etc.
• power made legi0mate by laws, wriien rules, and regula0ons is termed ra0onal-legal authority.

Example; In China you cannot speak against the government, example of A0k Ahmad.

State is a coercive power.

Types of Authority:

Weber’s Three Types of Authority

Traditional Charismatic Legal-Rational

Legitimized by long-standing Based on a leader’s personal Authority resides in the office, not
Source of
custom, remains in hand of qualities, the persona that he the person, Modern legitimate
Power
royal families. possesses. authority

Dynamic personality, Not

Leadership Bureaucratic officials, power
Historic personality, Monarch inherited and does not pass
Style given by soverign.
down.

Patriarchy (traditional positions

of authority), royal families with Napoleon, Jesus Christ, Mother
U.S. presidency and Congress,
Example no political power but Teresa, Martin Luther King, Jr.
Modern British Parliament
social influence. United Gandhi, Modi
Kingdom

Concept of Bureaucracy by Weber:

Bureaucracy as an ins5tu5on that is highly organized, formalized, and also impersonal. He also developed
the belief that there must be a fixed hierarchical structure for an organiza5on and clear rules, regula5ons,
and lines of authority that regulate it.
• Administra0ve work is done on the table. Managing day to day affairs.

• Specialization of labour, your responsibilities and roles are defined.

• A formal set of rules and regulations

• Well-defined hierarchy within the organization: You know your jurisdiction, can’t encroach on others, you’re only
responsible for the work allotted to you and your powers are limited to it. Follow the chain of command

• Impersonality in the application of rules

• Employment-oriented Professional Qualifications - Selection is based on technical qualifications and skills as well
as employee promotion. The selection is done through proper examination and it is fair and transparent process
no nepotism is there and there are parameters set that needs to be fulfilled for selection. EG- UPSC. SSC. Etc

Cri7que
• Weber’s applica5on of Verstehen in his study of Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism was
similar to Durkheim’s social determinism. Anthony Giddens and Kalberg clarified this by saying that
Weber wanted to include both macro and micro level studies under this method.
• Parsons cri5cised ideal types by saying that while the idea was valid, the implementa5on was
lacking. Parsons said that Weber’s ideal type would cause forma5on of mul5ple ideal types of the
same object without lending a complete understanding i.e. it would lead to type atomism. Parsons
suggested that ideal types must emerge from a single general theory.
• Many sociologists have commented on the u7lity of value guided research in gaining new insights.
Value neutrality makes the sociologist a mere observer and thus unable to guide the social process
in any meaningful way. Ex. Alvin Gouldner and reflexive sociology as moral sociology.