The Operational Amplifier

Qi Xuan
Zhejiang University of Technology
October 2015

Electric Circuits 1
 Structure
• Opera&onal  Amplifier  Terminals  
• Terminal  Voltages  and  Currents  
• The  Inver&ng-­‐Amplifier  Circuit  
• The  Summing-­‐Amplifier  Circuit  
• The  Noninver&ng-­‐Amplifier  Circuit    
• The  Difference-­‐Amplifier  Circuit  
• A  More  Realis&c  Model  for  the  Opera&onal  
Amplifier  
Electric Circuits 2
 Strain  Gages
A  strain  gage  is  a  grid  of  thin  wires  whose
 resistance  changes  when  the  wires  are
 lengthened  or  shortened.

R:  the  resistance  of  the  gage  at  rest;  

ΔL/L:  is  the  frac&onal  lengthening  of  the  gage
 (which  is  the  defini&on  of  "strain”);    
2:  is  typical  of  the  manufacturer's  gage  factor;  
ΔR:    the  change  in  resistance  due  to  the  bending
 of  the  bar.  

The change in resistance experienced by the strain gage is typically much smaller
than could be accurately measured by an ohmmeter.
In  order  to  make  an  accurate  measurement  of  the  voltage  difference,  we  use  an
 opera&onal  amplifier  circuit  to  amplify,  or  increase,  the  voltage  difference.  
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 Opera&onal  Amplifier  Terminals  

A  simplified  circuit  symbol

Electric Circuits  for  an  op  amp 4
 Terminal  Voltages

Saturate

Linear region
Saturate

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 Ideal  Op  Amp
Linear  region
A = +∞
vp = vn Virtual  short  condi&on
VCC ≤ 20 V
Maintain  the  virtual  short  condi&on  to  ensure  linear  opera&on:

Negative feedback

Electric Circuits 6
 Puzzle
• Even  if  the  circuit  provides  a  nega&ve  feedback  path  
for   the   op   amp,   linear   opera&on   is   not   ensured.   So  
how   do   we   know   whether   the   op   amp   is   opera:ng   in  
its  linear  region?    
• The  answer  is:  we  don’t  know!  

• We   first   assuming   linear   opera&on,   performing   the  

circuit   analysis,   and   then   checking   our   results   for  
contradic&ons,   if   we   have   -VCC≤vo≤VCC,   it’s   in   the  
linear  region,  if  not,  it’s  saturate!    
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 Terminal  Currents
Ideally,   the   equivalent   input
 resistance  is  infinite,  resul&ng
 in  the  current  constraint:

Note  that  the  current  constraint  is  not  based  on  assuming  the  op
  amp   is   confined   to   its   linear   opera&ng   region   as   was   the   voltage
 constraint.
Kirchhoff's  current  law:  

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 Notes
• The  posi&ve   and   nega&ve   power   supply   voltages  do  
not   have   to   be   equal   in   magnitude.   In   the   linear  
opera&ng  region,  vo must  lie  between  the  two  supply  
voltages.    
• Be   aware   also   that   the   value   of   A   is   not   constant  
under   all   opera&ng   condi&ons.   For   now,   however,  
we  assume  that  it  is.    

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 Example  #1
The  op  amp  in  the  circuit  is  ideal.    
a) Calculate  vo,  if  va = 1 V and  vb= 0 V.    
b) If  va = 1.5 V,  specify  the  range  of  vb  that  avoids  
amplifier  satura&on.    

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 Solu:on  for  Example  #1
a) vn = vp = vb = 0
vn

vp

i25 + i100 = in = 0

vo = -4 V

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 The  Inver&ng-­‐Amplifier  Circuit  

vn = vp = 0
is + if = in = 0

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 Open-­‐loop  Gain

vo = -Avn = -Avs
A: open-loop gain
|vs| ≤ VCC / A

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 Example  #2
a) Design  an  inver&ng  amplifier  with  a  gain  of  12.  Use  
±15  V  power  supplies  and  an  ideal  op  amp.    
b) What   range   of   input  voltages,  vs,  allows   the   op   amp  
in   this   design   to   remain   in   its   linear   opera&ng  
region?    

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 Solu:on  for  Example  #2
a) We   need   to   find   two   resistors   whose   ra'o   is   12   from   the  
realis&c  resistor  values  listed  in  Appendix  H.    
Rs = 1 kΩ Rf = 12 kΩ
verify

b) Solve two different versions of the

inverting-amplifier equation for
vs: first using vo = +15 V and then
using vo = -15 V:

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 The  Summing-­‐Amplifier  Circuit

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The  Noninver&ng-­‐Amplifier  Circuit  

Opera&on  in  the  linear  region  requires  that

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 Example  #3
a) Design  a  noninver&ng  amplifier  with  a  gain  of  6.  Assume  the  
op  amp  is  ideal.    
b) Suppose  we  wish  to  amplify  a  voltage  vg,  such  that -1.5 V ≤ vg
≤ 1.5 V.  What  are  the  smallest  power  supply  voltages  that  
could  be  used  with  the  resistors  selected  in  part  (a)  and  s&ll  
have  the  op  amp  in  this  design  remain  in  its  linear  opera&ng  
region?    

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 Solu:on  for  Example  #3
a) Using  the  noninver&ng  amplifier  equa&on  

 
Therefore,  we  have  

We   want   two   resistors   whose   ra&o   is   5.   Look   at   the

 realis&c  resistor  values  listed  in  Appendix  H.  Let's  choose
  Rf = 10 kΩ,   so   Rs = 2 kΩ.   But   there   is   not   a   2 kΩ   resistor
  in   Appendix   H.   We   can   create   an   equivalent   2 kΩ resistor
 by  combining  two  1 kΩ resistors  in  series.  We  can  use  a
 third  1 kΩ resistor  as  the  value  of  the  resistor  Rg.
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b) Solve  two  different  versions  of  the  noninver&ng  amplifier  
equa&on  for  vo—first  using  vg = +1.5 V and  then  using  vg =
-1.5V:

 
Thus,  if  we  use  ±9 V power  supplies  for  the  noninver&ng
 amplifier  designed  in  part  (a)  and  -1.5 V ≤ vg ≤ +1.5 V,
 the  op  amp  will  remain  in  its  linear  opera&ng  region.

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 The  Difference-­‐Amplifier  Circuit

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The  Difference  Amplifier—Another  
Perspec:ve  

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 Insights
• In   many   applica&ons   it   is   the   differen:al   mode   signal  
that   contains   the   informa:on   of   interest,   whereas  
the   common   mode   signal   is   the   noise   found   in   all  
electric  signals.    

• Thus,  we  hope    

RaRd = RbRc

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 Common  Mode  Rejec:on  Ra:o
• An  ideal  difference  amplifier  has  zero  common  mode  gain  and  
nonzero  (and  usually  large)  differen&al  mode  gain.    
• Two   factors   have   an   influence   on   the   ideal   common   mode  
gain—resistance  mismatches  or  a  nonideal  op  amp.  

or

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The   common   mode   rejec'on   ra'o   (CMRR)   can   be   used   to   measure
 how  nearly  ideal  a  difference  amplifier  is.  It  is  defined  as  the  ra&o  of  the
 differen&al  mode  gain  to  the  common  mode  gain

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 A  More  Realis&c  Model  for  the  
Opera&onal  Amplifier
A  realis&c  model  includes  three  modifica&ons  to  the  ideal  op  amp:  
(1)  a  finite  input  resistance,  Ri;  (2)  a  finite  open-­‐loop  gain,  A;  and  
(3)  a  nonzero  output  resistance,  Ro.    

vn = vp

in = ip = 0
For  the  juA741  op  amp,  the  typical
  values   of   Ri, A,   and   Ro   are   2 MΩ,
 105,  and  75  Ω,  respec&vely.

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 Analysis  of  the  More  Realis&c  Op  
Amp  Model  
• Take  the  Inver&ng-­‐Amplifier  Circuit  for  example:

RL

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 Strain  Gages

The  pair  of  strain  gages  that  are  lengthened  once  the  bar  is  bent
  have   the   values   R + ΔR in   the   bridge   feeding   the   difference
  amplifier,   whereas   the   pair   of   strain   gages   that   are   shortened
 have  the  values  R - ΔR.    

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Electric Circuits 29
 Summary
• Ideal  op  amp,  linear  region,  saturate    
• Voltage  constraint,  current  constraint  
• Inver&ng  amplifier,  summing  amplifier,  noninver&ng  
amplifier,  difference  amplifier  
• Common  mode  and  difference  mode    
• Difference-­‐amplifier,  common  mode  rejec&on  ra&o  
(CMRR)  
• More  realis&c  Op  Amp  model  

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