Lab Session 3

3.1 Objective:
To measure the stiffness of an Extension spring and compare it with theoretical values.

3.2 Apparatus:

• Extension of spring apparatus

• Hangers
• Weights

Figure 3.1 Extension Spring Apparatus

3.3 Summery of Theory:

3.3.1 Spring:
A spring is an object that can be deformed by a force and then return to its original shape after the
force is removed. Its sole purpose is to store and utilize the energy.
3.3.2 Deformations in springs:
There are broadly two types of deformation:

3.3.2.1 Elastic deformation:

When the stress is removed the material returns to the dimension it had before the load was applied.
The deformation is reversible, non-permanent.

3.3.2.2 Plastic deformation:

This occurs when a large stress is applied to a material. The stress is so large that when removed,
the material does not spring back to its previous dimension. There is a permanent, irreversible
deformation. The minimum value of the stress which produces plastic deformation is known as
the elastic limit for the material.
Any spring should be designed so that it only experience upto elastic deformation mostly for
efficient working.

3.3.3 Hooke’s law:

Hooke's law states that the force (F) needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance x is
proportional to that distance. That is,
F = kx
Where F is the force, x is the length of extension/compression and k is a constant of proportionality
known as the spring constant which is usually given in N/m.

Figure 3. 2 Hooke’s law visual representation

3.3.4 Material of spring:

Steel alloys are the most used spring materials. The most popular alloys include high-carbon (such
as the music wire used for guitar strings), oil-tempered low-carbon, chrome silicon, chrome
vanadium, and stainless steel.
Other metals that are sometimes used to make springs are beryllium copper alloy, phosphor bronze,
and titanium. Rubber or urethane may be used for cylindrical, non-coil springs. Ceramic material
has been developed for coiled springs in very high-temperature environments. One-directional
glass fiber composite materials are being tested for possible use in springs.

3.3.5 Types of springs according to loading conditions:

Springs can be classified depending on how the load force is applied to them:

3.3.5.1 Tension/extension spring

The spring is designed to operate with a tension load, so the spring stretches as the load is applied
to it.

Figure 3 3 Extension spring

3.3.5.2 Compression spring
It is designed to operate with a compression load, so the spring gets shorter as the load is applied
to it.

Figure 3.4 Compression spring

3.3.5.3 Torsion spring

The load applied to a torsion spring is a torque or twisting force, and the end of the spring rotates
through an angle as the load is applied.

Figure 3 5 Torsion spring

3.3.5.3 Constant spring

In this the supported load will remain constant throughout the deflection of spring.
 Figure 3 6 Constant spring

3.3.5.4 Variable spring:

In this, the resistance of the coil to load varies during compression.

Figure 3.7 Variable spring

3.3.6 Types of springs according to shapes:

3.3.6.1 Coil spring:

This type is made of a coil or helix of round wire.

Figure 3.8 Coil Spring

3.3.6.2 Flat spring:
This type is made of a flat spring steel.

Figure 3.9 Flat Spring

3.3.6.3 Machined spring:

This type of spring is manufactured by machining bar stock with a lathe and/or milling operation
rather than a coiling operation. Since it is machined, the spring may incorporate features in addition
to the elastic element. Machined springs can be made in the typical load cases of
compression/extension, torsion, etc.

Figure 3.10 Machined Spring

8.3.6.4 Serpentine spring

A zig-zag of thick wire - often used in modern upholstery/furniture.
 Figure 3.11 Serpentine Spring

3.4 Derivation of stiffness formula:

A spring may be defined as an elastic member whose primary function is to deflect or distort under
the action of applied load; it recovers its original shape when load is released. Springs are energy
absorbing units whose function is to store energy and to restore it slowly or rapidly depending on the
particular application. In order to derive a necessary formula which governs the behavior of springs,
consider a closed coiled spring subjected to an axial load W.

Let,
W = axial load D = mean coil diameter

d = diameter of spring wire N = number of active coils

G = modulus of rigidity ∆ = deflection of spring

Φ = Angle of twist l = length of spring wire = πDN ---- (i)

In 1879, Alberto Castiglione’ an Italian railroad engineer, published a book in which he

outlined a method for determining the displacement / deflection & slope at a point in a body. This
method which referred to Castiglione’s Theorem is applied to the bodies, having constant
temperature & material (homogeneous) with linear elastic behavior.
It states that “The derivative of the strain energy with respect to the applied load gives the
deformation corresponding to that load”.
For a helical spring, the partial derivative of the strain energy w.r.t. the applied load gives
the deflection in the spring i.e. ∂U / ∂W = deflection.
Consider a helical compression spring made up of a circular wire and subjected to axial
load W as shown in the figure above.
Strain Energy is given by:

U = ½ T * Φ ----- (ii)
Whereas,
T= ½ W * D ----- (iii)
Φ = T l / JG ----- (iv)
(From Torsion formula) putting the values from eqs. # (i), (iii) & (iv) in eq. # (ii) and
simplifying, we get;
T= 4 W2D 3N / d4G ----- (v)
Now applying the Castiglione’ theorem by taking the partial derivative of the strain energy with
respect to the applied load

∂U / ∂W = ∆ = 8 WD3N / d4G ----- (vi)

W / ∆ = d4G / 8 D3N
Stiffness = K = d4G / 8 D3N

3.5 Procedure:

i Measure the diameter of wire and outer diameter of spring with the help of Vernier
caliper.
ii Fit the extension spring in the spring support.
iii Load the spring by 10N or appropriate increments recording the change in length of the
spring up to the greatest readable deflection or the applicable max load.
vi Record the spring dimensions Repeat the same process for other springs and record the
readings.

3.6 Observations & Calculations:

Wire diameter (d) = ________ (mm)

Spring O/D = _______ (mm)

Spring Length (l) = ________ (mm)

Number of active turns (N) = ______

Modulus of rigidity (G) = ____ (N/ mm2)

𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑊/𝛥 = 𝑑4 𝐺/ 8𝑁 𝐷3

Where d = Wire diameter

N = Number of turns
 D = mean diameter of spring coil (O/D – d)
G = Modulus of rigidity (77 kN/mm2 for spring steels)

𝑆𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 = ______________

3.6.1 Graph:

Deflection vs Load
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1/ 𝑥2 −𝑥1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒1 = ___________ 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒2 = ____________ 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒3 = ____________𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒4 = ____________ 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒5 = _____________ 𝑁/𝑚𝑚

Table 3 Calculations of stiffness of an extension spring

No. Load Deflection Slope from Theoretical Difference Percentage

of (W) (∆) mm Graph Stiffness = Error (%)
Obs. N d4G / 8N ( Th.-Pr.)
(N/mm) D3 (N/mm)
Loading Unloading Mean (A) (B) Th.-Pr./Th.
X100
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Average Percentage Error= _______________%

3.7 Statistical Analysis:

3.8 Industrial Applications:

3.9 Conclusion: