 Illusory correlation – belief of

Scientific Foundations of correlation that doesn’t exist (old man

Psych (10-14%) predicts rain from arthritis)
 Psychology is derived from physiology SURVEYS: usually turned into correlation.
(biology) and philosophy Subject to:
 EARLY APPROACHES o Social desirability – ppl lie to look
o Structuralism – used INTROSPECTION good
(act of lookinginward to examine
1870s Today o Wording effects – how you frame
mental experience) to determine the the question can impact your
underlying STRUCTURES of the mind answers (see Loftus in Cognition)
o Functionalism – need to analyze the  Double-Blind: Exp. where neither the  NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION:
PURPOSE of behavior participant or the experimenter are Adv: real world validity (observe people
 APPROACHES KEY WORDS aware of which condition people are in their own setting) Disadv: No cause
o Psychoanalytic/dynamic – unconscious, assigned to (drug studies) and effect
childhood  Single-Blind: only participant blind –  CASE STUDY:
o Behavioral – learned, reinforced used if experimenter can’t be blind Adv. Studies ONE person (usually) in
o Humanistic – free will, choice, ideal, (gender, age, etc) great detail – lots of info Disadv: No
actualization o Quasi-experimental design – cause and effect
o Cognitive – Perceptions, thoughts random assignment to conditions  DESCRIPTIVE STATS:shape of the data
o Evolutionary – Genes is impossible (can’t randomly o Measures of Central Tendency:
assign gender)  Mean: Average (use in normal
o Biological – Brain, NTs
 Operational Definition: clear, precise, distribution)
o Sociocultural – society typically quantifiable definition of your  Median: Middle # (use in skewed
o Biopsychosocial – combo of above variables – allows replication distribution)
 PEOPLE:  Confound: error/ flaw in study Often confused  Mode: occurs most often
o Mary Calkins: First Fem. Pres. of APA  Random Assignment: assigns  Skews – created by outlers
o Margaret Floy Washburn–1st fem. PhD participants to either control or o Neg skew = left skew
o Charles Darwin: Natural selection & experimental group at random –increase o Pos skew = right skew
evolution chance of equal representation among
o Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental groups (spreads the lefties across both
institutions in U.S. groups)
o Stanley Hall: 1st pres. of APA1st journal  Random Sample (selection): method for
2 dads
o William James: Father of American choosing participants for your study –
Psychology – functionalist everyone has a chance to take part,
o Wilhelm Wundt: Father of Modern increases generalizability  INFERENTIAL STATISTICS:
Psychology – structuralist o Assignment and sampling can be establishes significance (meaningfulness)
 RANDOM TERMS done via names in a hat, computer  STATISTICAL SIGNIFANCE = results
o Basic research – purpose is to increase generation, etc not due to chance, exp.manipulation
knowledge (rats)  Representative Sample: Sample mimics caused the difference in means
o Applied research – purpose is to help the general pop. (ethnic, gender, age) 
people  Stratified Sampling: if you need to
o Psychologist – research or counseling – ensure a rep. sample you can separate
MS or PhD your population before you sample (ex.
o Psychiatrist – prescribe medications and make sure get 80% women, 20% men)
diagnose – M.D.  CORRELATION:
Research Design Adv: identify relationship between two
 EXPERIMENT : variables Disadv: No cause and effect
Adv: researcher controls variables to (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL
establish cause and effect Disadv: CAUSATION) ETHICAL GUIDELINES (IRB
difficult to generalize o Positive Correlation – variables APPROVAL NEEDED FOR PPL)
o Independent Variable: purposefully increase & decrease together o Confidentiality: names kept secret
altered by researcher to look for effect o Negative Correlation – as one o Informed Consent: must agree to be
 Experimental Group: received the variable increases the other decreases part of study
treatment (part of the IV); can have o The stronger the # the stronger the o Debriefing: must be told the true
multiple exp, groups relationship REGARDLESS of the purpose of the study (done after for
 Control Group: placebo, baseline pos/neg sign. Cannot be < or > than 1. deception)
(part of the IV); can only have 1 o Stronger relationships = tighter o Deception must be warranted
 Placebo Effect: show behaviors clusters on graph o No harm– mental/physical
associated with the exp. group when
having received placebo  3rd variable problem (lurking Biological Basis
o Dependent Variable: measured variable)– diff. variable is responsible (8-10%)
variable (is DEPENDENT on the for relationship (breast implants & *NT = neurotransmitter, AP = action
independent variable) suicide) potential, NS = nervous system
 NEURON: Basic cell of the NS o Epinephrine & Norepinephrine:  Motor Cortex: map of our motor
o Dendrites: Receive incoming NTs sympathetic NS arousal receptors – located in frontal lobe
o Soma: Cell body (includes nucleus) o Endorphins: pain control o Left hemisphere only – damage results
o Axon: AP travels down this o Oxytocin: love and bonding in aphasia (damaged speech)
o Myelin Sheath: speeds up AP down  Agonist: drug that mimics a NT  Broca’s Area: Inability to produce
axon, protects axon, MS destroys this  Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT speech (Broca – Broken speech)
o Terminals: release NTs – send signal  Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up  Wernicke’s Area: can’t comprehend
onto next neuron into the sending neuron. SSRIs (selective speech (Wernicke’s what?)
o Vesicles: sacs inside terminal contain o Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that
NTs (rhymes w/?) connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes
o Synapse: gap b/w neurons severed in patients with severe seizures –
 Action Potential: movement of Na and K leads to “split-brain patients”
ions across membrane sends an electrical  Split-brain experiments: done by Sperry
charge down the axon (more Na outside – & Gazzaniga.
like a salty banana)
o All or none law: stimulus must trigger
the AP past its threshold, but does not
increase the intensity of the response
(flush the toilet) serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block
o Refractory period: neuron must rest reuptake – treatment for depression
 AREAS OF THE BRAIN:   Image
and reset before it can send another
 Hindbrain: oldest part of the brain shown to R eye processed in L hemi –
AP (toilet resets
o Cerebellum – movement/balance patient can say what they saw; image
(walking a tightrope balancing a bell) shown to L eye processed in R hemi,
o Medulla – vital organs (HR, BP) can’t say what was seen
o Pons – bridge b/w regions – basic  BRAIN PLASTICITY: Brain can “heal”
functions itself (brain is malleable)
 Midbrain  NATURE VS. NURTURE: ANSWER
o Reticular formation: alertness IS BOTH
 Forebrain: higher thought processes o Twin Studies:
o Limbic System  Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ)
 Amygdala: emotions, fear (Amy, da!  Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ)
You’re so emotional!) o Genetics: MZ twins will have a higher
percentage of also developing a disease
 Sensory neurons – receive sense signals  Hippocampus: memory (if you saw a
o Environment: MZ twins raised in
hippo on campus you’d remember it!)
 Afferent neurons brainAccepts signals  Hypothalamus: Reward/pleasure different environments show differences
 Motor neurons – signals to move center, eating behaviors – link to  ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: sends
endocrine system hormones throughout the body
 Efferent neurons – signal Exits brain o Thalamus: relay center for all but smell o Pituitary Gland: Controlled by
 Interneurons – cells in spinal cord (you MUST (thalaMUST) use your hypothalamus. release growth hormones
responsible for reflex loop thalamus, unless its MUSTY – smell) o Adrenal Glands: related to sympathetic
 CENTRAL NS: Brain and spinal cord o NS: releases adrenaline
 PERIPHERAL NS: Rest of the NS  BRAIN IMAGING:
o Somatic NS: Voluntary movement o EEG: brain activity – not specific
o Autonomic NS: Involuntary (heart, o XRAY: not useful, doesn’t show tissues
Must include bio response (HR
lungs, etc) o CT / MRI: shows structures (tumors)
increase / decrease) for FRQ
 Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body for o PET: glucose shows brain activity (when
credit
fight/flight (generally activates – in doubt pick this one)
sympathetic to you getting eaten by a o fMRI: oxygen shows activity: real time
tiger helps you run away) o lesion – destruction of brain tissue
 Parasympathetic NS: established Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the brain  STATES of CONSCIOUSNESS:
homeostasis after a sympathetic – higher order thought processes o Higher-Level: controlled processes –
response (generally inhibits)  Occipital Lobe: vision – mom’s eyes! totally aware
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS (NT):  Frontal Lobe: decision making, o Lower-Level: automatic processing
Chemicals released in synaptic gap, planning, judgment, movement, (daydreaming, phone numbers)
received by neurons personality o Altered States: produced through drugs,
o GABA: Major inhibitory NT  Parietal Lobe: sensations fatigue, hypnosis
o GlutamatE: Major Excitatory NT  Temporal Lobe: hearing and face o Subconscious: Sleeping and dreaming
(get excited when seeing your mates! recognition
o No awareness: Knocked out
o Dopamine: Reward & movement  Somatosensory Cortex: map of our
o Serotonin: Moods and emotion touch receptors –in parietal lobe *can
o Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory only mention touch in FRQ
 SLEEP:
o Beta Waves: awake (you betta be awake for o Dependence: Become addicted to the occipital lobe (experiments by Hubel &
the exam) drug – must have it to avoid withdrawal Weisel)
o Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy symptoms  THEORIES OF COLOR VISION:
o NREM (non REM) stages- o Withdrawal: Psychological and o Trichromatic – three cones for
o Stage 1: light sleep physiological symptoms associated receiving color (blue, red, green)
o Stage 2: bursts of sleep spindles with sudden stoppage. Unpleasant –  Explains color blindness - they are
o Stage 3 Delta waves: Deep sleep can kill you. missing a cone type Key w
o Opponent Process – complementary
o Rapid Eye Movement (REM): dreaming, Sensation & Perception colors are processed in ganglion cells –
cognitive processing
Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM
(6 – 8%) explains why we see an after image
occurs inb/w each cycle. REM lasts  ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD: detection of  Visual Capture: Visual system
longer throughout the night signal 50% of time (is it there) overwhelms all others (nauseous in an
 DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD IMAX theater – vision trumps vestibular)
(also called a just noticeable  Constancies: recognize that objects do
difference (JND) and follows not physically change despite changes in
WEBER’S LAW: two stimuli sensory input (size, shape, brightness)
must differ by a constant  Phi Phenomenon: adjacent lights blink
minimum proportion. (Can you on/off in succession – looks like
tell a change (stronger / weaker?) movement (traffic signs with arrows)
 CIRCADIAN RHYTHM: 24 hour  SIGNAL DETECTION THEORY:  Stroboscopic movement: motion
biological clock of Body temp & sleep detection depends on experience, produced by a rapid succession of slightly
o Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic expectations, alertness, etc. (more likely varying images (animations)
nucleus (SCN) in the brain to notice a door slam outside when  MONOCULAR CUES (how we form a
o Explains jet lag waiting on the pizza guy) 3D image from a 2D image)
 Sensory Adaptation: diminished o Interposition:
 SLEEP DISORDERS
o Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep (due sensitivity as a result of constant overlapping
stimulation (can you feel your images appear
to stress/anxiety)
underwear?) closer
o Sleep walking/talking: (due to fatigue,
 Sensory Habituation: diminished o Relative Size:
drugs, alcohol) – NOT during REM
sensitivity due to regular exposure (do 2 objects that
o Night terrors: extreme nightmares –
you notice the train?) are usually similar in size, the smaller
NOT in REM sleep – typical in  Perceptual Set: tendency to see one is further away
children something as part of a group – speeds up o Linear
o Narcolepsy: fall asleep out of nowhere signal processing Perspective:
(due to deficiency in orexin)
parallel lines
o Sleep Apnea: stop breathing suddenly  converge with
while asleep (due to obesity usually) distance
 DREAM THEORIES: (think railroad
o Freud’s Unconscious Wish tracks)
Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice o Relative
of unconscious desires and needs something added b/c you’re so focused on Clarity: hazy
 Latent Content: hidden meaning another task (gorilla video) objects appear further away
 Manifest Content: obvious storyline  Change Blindness: failure to notice a o Texture Gradient: coarser objects are
 Activation Synthesis: Brain produces change in the scene (door study) closer
random bursts of energy – stimulating  Cocktail party effect: notice your name o Relative Height: things higher in our
lodged memories in limbic sys. Dreams across the room when its spoken, when field of vision look further away
start random then develop meaning you weren’t previously paying attention o Motion Parallax: closer objects appear to
 PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS:  VISUAL SYSTEM:
o Triggers dopamine release in the move faster than objects that are farther
o Cornea
Pathway – protects
of light followsthe
thiseye
direction   BINOCULAR CUES: (how both eyes
brain o Pupil/iris – controls light entering eye
Today make up a 3D image)
o Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, o Lens – focuses light on retina Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly
tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics) o Retina – contains rods and cones different on each retina, location of
 Decrease sympathetic NS activation, o Fovea–area of best vision(cones here) image helps us determine depth
highly addictive o Rods – black/white, dim light Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking
o Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine,
o Cones – color, bright light (red, green, blue) inward) as objects draw nearer
MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine
o Bipolar cells – connect rods/cones and  TOP-DOWN PROCESSING: Whole 
 Increase sympathetic NS activation,
ganglion cells smaller parts (painting w/ faces)
highly addictive
o Ganglion – create optic nerve  BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING: Smaller
o Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana
o Blind spot – occurs where the optic Parts  Whole (dog of bunch of dots)
 Causes hallucinations, less addictive  AUDITORY SYSTEM:
o Tolerance: Needing more of a drug to nerve leaves the eye
o Feature detectors – specialized cells o Pathway of sound: sound  pinna 
achieve the same effects
that see shapes, lines, etc. located in auditory canal ear drum (tympanic
membrane)  hammer, anvil, stirrup
 (HAS)  oval window  cochlea   Continuity: tendency to mentally form O Neg. Punishment: Take away
auditory nerve  temporal lobes a continuous line something good to decrease a behavior
o Outer Ear: pinna (ear), auditory canal (take away car keys)
o Middle Ear: ear drum, HAS (bones Learning O Primary Reinforcers: innately
vibrate to send signal) All operant
satisfying (food andconditioning
water)
o Inner Ear: cochlea – like COCHELLA (7-9 %) Secondary
O FRQ – make sureReinforcers: everything else
to indicate reinforcement
(sounds 1st processed here); basilar All associated w/ classical conditioning
(stickers, high-fives)
results in a continued behavior
membrane is IN the cochlea  Token Reinforcer: type of
 THEORIES OF HEARING: both occur CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV! secondary- can be exchanged for other
in the cochlea o Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): causes stuff (game tokens or money)
o Place theory – location where hair cells response w/o needing to be learned (food) O Generalization: respond to similar
bends determines sound (high pitches) o Unconditioned Response (UCR): response stimulus for reward
o Frequency theory – rate at which action that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate) O Discrimination: stimulus signals when
potentials are sent determines sound o Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that behavior will or will not be reinforced
(low pitches) normally doesn’t evoke a response (bell) (light on means response are accepted)
 COMMON ILLUSIONS: o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once NS that O Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery:
O Muller-lyer – doesn’t now brings about a response (bell) same as classical conditioning
work on cultures w/o o Conditioned Response (CR): response O Overjustification Effect: reinforcing
exposure to modern after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate) behaviors that are intrinsically
architecture o Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS motivating causes you to stop doing
O Ponzo – happens due to must be presented .5-1 sec BEFORE the US them (give a child 5$ for reading when
linear perspective o Acquisition: process of learning the they already like to read – they stop
O McGurk effect – see mouth saying ba or response pairing reading)
Common FRQ terms – don’t mix the terms
fa overrides what you actually hear (va) o Extinction: previously conditioned O Shaping: use successive approximations
 OTHER SENSES: response dies out over time to train behavior (reward desired
o Touch: Mechanoreceptors  spinal cord o Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of behaviors to teach a response – rat
 thalamus  somatosensory cortex time the CR comes back out of nowhere basketball)
o Vestibular: Sense of balance o Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar O Continuous Reinforcement schedule:
(semicircular canals in the inner ear sounding bell) Receive reward for every response
effect this) o Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS (only O Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X
o Kinesthetic (proprioception): Sense of drool to that one bell, no others) number of response (every 10 envelopes
body position (neurons in ligaments & CONTINGENCY MODEL: Rescorla & stuffed get $$)
body tell you this) Wagner – classical conditioning involves O Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every
o Pain (nociception): Gate-control theory: cognitive processes X amount of time passed (every 2 weeks
we have a “gate” to control how much CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION get a paycheck)
pain is experienced (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John O Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded
o Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors: Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow after a random number of responses (slot
bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory) classical conditioning to occur in one trial machine
o Smell (olfaction): Only sense that does (food poisoning) O Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded
NOT route through the thalamus 1st. John Watson (father of behaviorism) and after a random amount of time has
Goes to temporal lobe and amygdala Little Albert – conditioned a fear in a baby passed (fishing)
 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: Whole is – eventually leads to behavioral treatments O Variable schedules are most resistant to
greater than the sum of its parts for fear (counterconditioning) extinction (how long will keep playing a
Gestalt Principles: slot machine before you think its
 Figure/ground: organize information
All operant conditioning broken?)
into figures objects (figures) that stand OPERANT CONDITIONING:
apart from surrounds (back ground) SKINNER! SOCIAL (OBSERVATIONAL)
 Closure: mentally fill in gaps O LAW OF EFFECT (Thorndike): LEARNING: BANDURA!
 Proximity: group things together that Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes  Modeling Behaviors: Children model
appear near each other are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken (imitate) behaviors. Study used BoBo
 Similarity: group things together a behavior (cat in the puzzle box) dolls to demonstrate the following
based off of looks  PRINCIPLES OF OPERANT COND: O Prosocial – helping behaviors
O Pos. Reinforcement: Add something O Antisocial – mean behaviors
nice to increase a behavior (gold star for  MISC LEARNING TYPES
turning in HW) O Latent learning (Tolman!) – learning is
O Neg. Reinforcement: Take away hidden until useful (rats in maze get
something bad/annoying to increase a reinforced half way through,
behavior (put on seatbelt to take away performance improved
annoying car signal)  Cognitive maps – mental
O Pos. Punishment: Add something bad to representation of an area, allows
decrease a behavior (spanking) navigation if blocked
 O Insight learning (Kohler!) – some o Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets  Encoding specificity principle: the more
learning is through simple intuition the clock closely retrieval cues match the way we
(chimps with crates to get bananas)  Working Memory Model splits STM learned the info, the better we remember
O Learned Helplessness – no matter what into 2 – visual spatial memory (from the info (like state dependent memory)
you do you never get a positive outcome iconic mem) and phonological loop  Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly
so you just give up (word scrambles) (from echoic mem). A “central at first, then reaches a plateau after which
executive” puts it together before little more is forgotten (EBBINGHAUS)
Cognition passing it to LTM  Proactive interference
 Long term memory – lasts a life time OLD info blocks new info
(13 – 17%) o Explicit (Declarative): Conscious
 Retroactive interference
ENCODING: Getting info into memory recollection
 Automatic encoding – requires no effort  Episodic: events NEW info blocks old info
 Semantic: facts  Misinformation effect: distortion of
(what did you have for breakfast?)
o Implicit (Nondeclarative): memory by suggestion or misinformation
 Effortful encoding – requires attention
unconscious recollection (Loftus – lost in the mall, Disney land)
(school work)
 Classical conditioning  Framing – the way a question is framed
 Shallow, intermediate, deep processing:
 Priming: info that is seen earlier impacts how info is recalled / perceived
the more emphasis on MEANING the
“primes” you to remember (how fast were the cars going when they
deeper the processing, and the better
something later on smashed)
remembered
 Procedural: skills (muscle  Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves
 Imagery – attaching images to information
memory)** needs to CLEARLY forward (forget new info – 50 first dates)
makes it easier to remember (shoe w/
be an example w/o conscious  Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves
spaghetti laces)
backwards (forget old info)
 Self-referent encoding – we better thought on FRQ
 Memory organization  Source Amnesia: forget who told you,
remember what we’re interested in (you’d
o Hierarchies: memory is stored where you heard it
remember someone’s phone number who
 ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE: caused by
you found extremely attractive) according to a hierarchy
destruction of acetylcholine in
 Dual encoding – using multiple methods o Semantic networks: linked
hippocampus
of processing to remember (photo + words) memories are stored together LANGUAGE
 Chunking – break info into smaller units o Schemas: preexisting mental concept  Phonemes: smallest unit of sound (ch
to aid in memory (like a phone #) of how something should look (like a sound in chat)
 Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us restaurant)  Morpheme: smallest unit that caries
remember info easier  Memory storage meaning (-ed means past tense)
o Acronyms – using letter to remember o Acetylcholine neurons in the  Grammar: rules in a language that enable
something (PEMDAS) hippocampus for most memories us to communicate
o Method of loci – using locations to o Cerebellum for procedural  Semantics: set of rules by which we
remember a list of items in order memories derive meaning (adding –ed makes
o Peg-word – using a rhyme w/ o Long-term potentiation: neural basis of something past tense)
imagery to remember lists in order memory – connections are strengthened  Syntax: rules for combining words into
 Context dependent memory – where over time with repeated stimulation (more sentences (white house vs casa blanca)
you learn the info you best remember firing of neurons)  Surface structures: actual written/ spoken
the info (scuba divers testing) RETRIEVAL: Taking info out of storage message
 State dependent memory – the  Serial Position Effect: tendency to  Deep structures: intended meaning (I
physical state you were in when remember the beginning (primacy effect) never said she stole my money – has 7
learning is the way you should be when and the end (recency effect) of the list best different interpretations)
testing (study high, test high)  Recall: remember what you’ve been told  Babbling stage: 1st stage of speech
 Depth of Processing – the deeper w/o cues (essays)  One-word stage: duh
(more effort, thought) you think about  Recognition: remember what you’ve been  Two-word stage: duh duh (telegraphic
something the more you remember told w/ cues (MC) speech)
STORAGE: Retaining info over time  Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid  Theories of language development:
 Information Processing Model – memories for highly important events o Behavioral Theory (SKINNER):
Sensory memory, short term memory, (9/11 attacks) learn language through pos.
long term memory model  Repressed memories: unconsciously reinforcement
 Sensory Memory – stores all incoming buried memories – are unreliable  Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear
stimuli that you receive (first you have  Encoding failure: forget info b/c you o Nativistic theory (lang. acquisition
to a pay attention) never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the device): NOAM CHOMSKY –
o Iconic Memory – visual memory, first place (which is the real penny) language is innate / biological; we are
lasts 0.3 seconds predisposed to learn
o Echoic Memory – auditory memory,  Overregularization: grammar
lasts 2-3 seconds mistake- children over use certain
 Short Term Memory – info passes morphemes (I go-ed to the park)
from sensory memory to STM – lasts o Critical period: period of time where
30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items something must be learned or else it
 cannot ever happen (language must be o Fluid intelligence: spatial abilities,  Split-half reliability: compare two
learned young – Genie the Wild Child) processing speed, abstract thinking – halves of the test
o Linguistic determinism: language can’t learn in school. decrease w/ age  Test-retest reliability: use the same
influences the way we think (Hopi have  SPEARMAN’S G FACTOR: said a general test on 2 different occasions
no words for past, do not think about intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities o Should be valid: test is accurate –
the past) developed by WHORF (typical IQ of today) measures what it is intended to
 GARDNER: multiple intelligences (8):  Content validity: test measures what
THINKING linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, you want it to (an IQ test actually
 Metacognition: thinking about (reflecting spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal measures IQ)
upon) the way you think (self), interpersonal (others), naturalist  Predictive validity: test is able to
 Concepts: mental categories used to group  STERNBERG: TRIARCHIC THEORY accurately predict a trait (high math
objects, events, characteristics o Analytical: mental components to solve scores predicts good engineer)
 Prototypes: all instances of a concept are problems, what IQ tests assess (book  Standardized tests establish a normal
compared to an ideal example (what you smarts) distribution
first think of) o Practical: ability to size up new  Standard deviations are used to compare
 Algorithms: step by step strategies that situations and adapt to real-life demands scores.
guarantee a solution (formula) (street smarts) Standard deviation measures how much the
 Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of o Creative: intellectual and motivational scores vary from the mean. The percentages
thumb) processes that lead to novel solutions, stay the same in every curve
o Representative Heuristic: make idea, products
judgment based on your experience (like  BINET: developed 1st intelligence test, Development
a stereotype) – assume someone must be combined with TERMAN – developed the (7-9%)
a librarian b/c they’re quiet STANFORD-BINET IQ TEST Prenatal Development:
o Availability heuristic: make a o Zygote: 0 – 14 days, cells are dividing
judgement based on the first thing that o Embryo: until about 9 weeks, vital
pops in your head (assume planes are
o Chronological age = actual age organs being formed
dangerous b/c crash in the news)
o Fetus: 9 wks to birth
 Mental Set - keep using one strategy to o Mental age = tested age compared to
o Teratogens: external agents that can
solve a problem – cannot think outside the other of that age
box o 100 is average cause abnormal prenatal development
 Functional Fixedness: can only see one (alcohol, drugs, etc)
 WECHSLER: developed the WAIS and
(common) use for an item– cannot think  Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large
WISC – most commonly used today
amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes
outside of the box  FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over
 Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting deformities, mental disability, death
the past 80 years – probably due to
beliefs to distort logical reasoning by Physical Development:
education standards and better IQ tests
o Maturation: natural course of
making invalid conclusions  Extremes of Intelligence: high IQ = above
 Belief perseverance: cling to our beliefs 135; intellectually disadvantage = below 70 development, occurs no matter what
in the face on contrary evidence  Causes of mild intellectual disadvantage: (walking)
 Confirmation bias: look for evidence to o PKU – liver fails to produce an enzyme o Reflexes: innate responses we’re born w/
support what we already believe needed to breakdown chemicals – leads  Rooting, sucking, swallowing,
 to brain damage grasping, Moro (startle), stepping,
3 Part FRQ Answers: B.P. – belief, st Babinski (toes spread when foot
contrary evidence, belief stays. C.B. –
o Down syndrome – extra copy of 21
touched)
belief, seek supporting evidence, belief chromosome
o Eyes have the most limited
stays o Fragile X – higher chance in boys due to
development, takes till 1 year
ONE X chromosome
 Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth
 Influence on IQ:
Inductive reasoning: data drives decisions, perception, so they will cross a “cliff”
o Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ,
(inductive ends with an idea (I/I) o Other senses are fairly developed
adopted kids more similar to biological
Deductive reasoning: driven by logic, JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEV.
parents
deductive ends w/ data (d/d) Schemas – concepts or frameworks that
o Environment: early neglect leads to
Divergent thinking: ability to think about organize info
lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ
many different things at once (Creative) Assimilation: incorporate new info into
 Types of Tests:
 Convergent thinking: limits creativity – one o Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn existing schema (aSSimlation – same stuff).
answer Cat is a dog b/c 4 legs.
a new skill (ASVAB) Accommodation: adjust existing schemas to
INDIVIDUAL THEORIES ABOUT
o Achievement: tests what you know(SAT) incorporate new information
INTELLIGENCE
 GALTON: 1st to suggest intelligence was  TEST CREATION: (ACcommodation - All Change). Cat and
o Standardization: administer a test to a dogs = different.
inherited. Supported eugenics.
 CATTELL: 2 clusters of mental abilities representative sample of future test takers Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years:
o Crystalized intelligence: language skills to establish a basis for meaningful focused on exploring the world around
comparison (test it out 1st) them
and facts - what you learn in school –hard
o Should be reliable: same results over o Lack Object Permanence: Objects when
(like crystals!) facts, increase w/ age
time removed from field of view are thought to
disappear (peek-a-boo)
 o Dev. Sense of Self: by 2 yrs can o Ambivalent attachment(10% infants): o Social learning theory: we learn gender
recognize themselves in the mirror (blush actively avoids mom, freaks out when roles and identity from those around us
test) she leaves AGING:
Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years: use o Disorganized attachment (5%): o Cellular clock theory: cells have a
pretend play, developing language, using confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse maximum # of divisions before they
intuitive reasoning KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEV can’t divide anymore
o Lack Conservation: recognize that o Preconventional morality: Children: o Free-radical theory: unstable oxygen
substances remain the same despite they follow rules to avoid punishment molecules w/in cells damage DNA
changes in shape, length, or position (girls o Conventional morality: adolescents: o Over time skills decrease (reaction
with juice in glasses) follow rules b/c it’s the law, or to gain time, memory)
o Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse social approval CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: studies ppl
operations (count out both 4+2 and 2+4) o Postconventional morality: adults: they of different ages at the same point in time
o Are egocentric: inability to distinguish do what they believe is right (even if it o Adv: inexpensive & quick
one’s own perspective from another’s – goes against society) o Disadv: can be differences due to
think everyone sees what they see Carol Gilligan: said moral reasoning and generational gap
Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs: use moral behaviors are two different things LONGITUDINAL STUDY: studies same
operational thinking, classification, and (what you say isn’t always what you do) ppl over time
can think logical in concrete context Also said mean use “justice” for postcon. o Adv: eliminates groups (cohort)
Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs: use women use “caring for others” differences, lots of detail
abstract and idealist thoughts, ERIKSON’S SOCIOEMOTINAL DEV. : o Disadv: expensive, time consuming, high
hypothetical-deductive reasoning each stage represents a crisis that must be drop out rates
Problems with Piaget’s theory: stages too resolved, results in competence or weakness
discrete, dev. differs b/w kids o Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 18 months): if
VYGOTSKY’S THEORY: cognitive needs are met infants dev basic trust Motivation, Emotion, and
development is a social process too, need to o Autonomy vs shame&doubt (1 -3 yrs): Personality
interact w/ others
o Zone of Proximal Development: gap
learn to exercise their will (I WANT TO (11-15%)
DO IT – pours milk)
b/w what a child can do on their own and THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
o Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to
w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers) INSTINCT: complex behaviors have fixed
initiate tasks and carry out plans (WHY
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT patterns and are not learned (explains
kid)
Temperament: patterns of emotional animal motivation)
o Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to
reactions and babies (precursor to DRIVE REDUCTION: physiological need
puberty): learn what you’re good or creates aroused tension (drive) that
personality) accomplished at (school / sports success)
Imprinting: baby geese believe the first motivates you to satisfy the need (driven by
o Identity vs role confusion: (adolescence homeostasis: equilibrium). “I’m hungry, I
thing they see after hatching is their mom – thru 20s): refine a sense of self by testing
happens during a critical period (from seek out food to decrease my hunger”
roles and forming an identity o Primary drive: unlearned drive based
LORENZ) o Intimacy vs isolation: (20s—40s): form
HARRY HARLOW: discovered that on survival (hunger, thirst)
close relationships and gain capacity for o Secondary drive: learned drive
contact comfort is more important than love
feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth (wealth or success)
o Generativity vs stagnation: (40s-60s): INCENTIVE THEORY: driven by external
mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation
discover sense of contributing to the rewards
couldn’t socialize
world, thru family & work o Intrinsic motivation: inner motivation
BAUMRIND: parenting styles
o Integrity vs despair: (60s and up): – you do it b/c you like it
o Authoritarian: rules & obedience, “my
reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or o Extrinsic motivation: motivation to
way or the highway” – kids lack
failure obtain a reward (trophy)
initiative in college
PUBERTY! (rapid skeletal and sexual COGNITIVE DISSONANCE:
o Permissive: kids do whatever – no rules
maturation) (FESTINGER): two opposing thoughts
– kids lack initiative in college o Primary sex characteristics: necessary
o Authoritative: give and take w/ kids – conflict w/ each other, causing discomfort
structures for reproduction (ovaries, (dissonance), which makes us find ways to
kids become socially competent and testicles, vagina, penis)
reliable – best type justify the situation (cult that was going to
o Secondary sex characteristics: be abducted by aliens, smokers)
MARY AINSWORTH: developed the
nonreproductive characteristics that dev
strange situation paradigm (children left
during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening
alone in a room w/ a stranger, then reunited
of voice, body hair)
w/ mom – determines your attachment style
o Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully
o Secure attachment (60% of infants):
developed till 25)
upset when mom leaves, easily calmed
GENDER DEVELOPMENT: sex =
on return. Tend to be more stable adults
chromosomes, gender = what you identify
o Avoidant attachment (20% infants):
yourself as
actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when o Gender roles: expected behaviors
she leaves
(norms) for men/women
OPTIMUM AROUSAL (ALSO CALLED  Causes: overly critical parents,  Industrial / Organizational Psych: psychof
THE YERKES DODSON LAW): humans perfectionist tendencies, societal ideals the work – employee recruitment, training,
seek optimum levels of arousal –easier tasks o Bulimia: usually normal body weight, go satisfaction, productivity
requires more arousal, harder tasks need through a binge-purge eating pattern (eat  Ergonomics / Human Factors: intersection
less massive amounts, then throw up) of engineering and psych – focuses on
  Causes: same as anorexia safety and efficiency of human-machine
o Binge Eating: engage in binge patterns interactions
only, no purge  Hawthorne effect: productivity increases
SEXUALITY when workers are made to feel important
Biology of sex: (teacher teaches when principal comes in)
o Hypothalamus: stimulation increases  Theory X management: manager controls
sexual behavior, destruction leads to employees, enforces rules. Good for lower
sexual inhibition level jobs
 Males – testosterone  Theory Y management: manger gives
 Females - estrogen employees responsibility, looks for input.
o Sexual Response Pattern: Excitement Good for high level jobs
phase, plateau, orgasm, refractory period STRESS AND HEALTH
(resolution phase) (cannot “fire” again  Problem-focused coping: solving or doing
until you reset, guys only) something to alter the course of stress
o Alfred Kinsey: created Kinsey scale of (planning, acceptance)
homosexuality (ranges on a spectrum) Emotion-focused coping: reducing the
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS: theory derived Studies lacked a representative sample emotional distress (denial, disengagement)
by MASLOW – needs lower in the pyramid o Homosexuality: biological roots:
have priority over needs higher in the differences in the brain, identical twins
pyramid more likely to both be gay, later sons
more likely to be (hormones from mom)
THORIES OF EMOTIONS
Older Theories
James Lange – Stimulus  Arousal (SNS)
 Emotion
Canon Bard – Stimulus  Arousal /
Emotion simultaneous GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
Cog. Label is
New Theories (GAS): three phases of a stress response
the key (SELYE came up w/ this)
 Schacter Two Factor – Stimulus arousal
HUNGER o Alarm: body/you freak out in response to
 label / emotion simultaneous
Signals of hunger: stress
Lazarus Appraisal – Stimulus  Label
o Stomach contractions tell us we’re hungry o Resistance: body/you are dealing with
Arousal / Emotion (LL – Lazarus Labels
o Glucose (sugar) level is maintained by stress
First)
the pancreas (endocrine system). Biological Theory (Le Doux) o Exhaustion: body/you cannot take any
o Insulin decreases glucose. Too little  Not valid todaymore, give up
Some
glucose makes us hungry. stimuli o FRQ – MUST REFERENCE A
o Hormones signal eat: orexin, Ghrelin are routed PHYSIO REPSONSE
o Hormones signal stop: PYY, leptin Type A Personality: rigid, stressful person,
o Lateral hypothalamus: stimulated perfectionist. At risk for heart disease
makes you hungry; lesioned you will Type B Personality: laid back, nonstressed.
never eat again. (I’m LATE for lunch. Theories of Conflict (Lewin)
I’m hungry. The LATEral directly to the amygdala bypassing the  Approach approach conflict: win – win
hypothalamus makes you hungry.) frontal cortex (gut reaction to a cockroach) situation; conflict is which win you have
Ventromedial hypothalamus: when to choose (you can eat out at ONE of your
stimulated you feel full, when destroyed Behavioral factors: there are SIX universal two favorite restaurants – you can only
you eat eat eat eat emotions (happiness, anger, sadness, choose one though)
Obesity: surprise, disgust, feat) seen across ALL  Approach avoidance conflict: win – lose
o Increased risk of heart attack, cultures (Eckman’s theory) situation; outcome has positive and
hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes Non-verbal cues: gestures, duchenne smile  negative aspects (marriage)
o Can be genetic – adopted children (you can tell a real smile from a fake one)  Avoidance avoidance conflict : lose –
resemble their biological parents Facial feedback hypothesis: being forced to lose; both outcomes are bad but you have
o Set point: control system dictates how smile will make you happier (cartoon study to choose one (clean your room or do
much fat you should carry – every person with pen in mouth) your homework)
is different Display Rules: social group or culture’s  Multiple approach avoidance conflict:
Eating Disorders: norms of how to express certain emotions two (or more) win-lose situations; conflict
o Anorexia: weight loss of at least 15% INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL is which to choose (College A is good for
ideal weight, distorted body image PSYCH your major but no scholarship, College B
 is bad for your major but has a Genital State (adulthood): sexual What’s wrong with trait theory? – ignores
scholarship) reawakening – oedipal and electra the role of the situation in behavior
“feelings” are repressed, turn sexual wants What’s good about it? - identifying traits
onto an appropriate person gives us perspectives about careers,
PERSONALITY THEORIES FIXATION: can become “stuck” in an relationships, health
PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATION earlier stage – influences personality (oral How do we test this approach?
SIGMUND FREUD said personality was stage smokes/drinks, anal is “anal Personality Inventories like:
largely unconscious. retentive”, phallic is promiscuous) o MMPI –for mental health and jobs
Conscious: current awareness What’s wrong w/ Freud theory? – What’s wrong w/ these tests?
Preconscious: available to awareness (phone unverifiable, descriptive not predictive They’re long, social desirability can be an
#s) What’s good about it? – 1st theory about influence, and they’re too broad
Unconscious: unavailable to awareness personality, sparked psychoanalysis HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
id: our hidden true animalistic wants and How do we test this approach? Emphasized personal growth and free will.
desires – operates on the pleasure principle, Psychoanalysis: analyze a person’s You don’t like yourself? So change!
all about rewards and avoiding pain (devil unconscious motives thru the use of:  CARL ROGERS: talked about our self-
on your shoulder – entirely unconscious) o Free Association: say aloud everything concept (idea of who we are). Your self-
superego: our moral conscious (angel on that comes to mind w/o hesitation concept is the center of your personality
your shoulder, all 3 consciousness) o Transference: looks for feelings to o Actual (social) self: what others see
ego: reality principle, has to deal w/ society, transferred to psychoanalyst o Ideal (true) self: who you WANT to be
stuck mediating b/w the id and superego (its o Dream interpretation: analyze the o A positive self-concept makes us perceive
you! – conscious and preconscious) manifest (seen message) and latent the world positively (optimist)
When ego cannot mediate b/w the id and (hidden messages) content o A negative self-concept makes us feel
superego, we use defense mechanisms o Projective Tests: ambiguous stimuli dissatisfied and unhappy
Repression: push memories back into the shown to look at your unconscious What wrong with humanistic theory? -
unconscious mind (sexual abuse is too motives (THESE SUCK B/C THEY too optimistic about human nature, abstract
traumatic to deal w/ so you repress it) ARE VERY SUBJECTIVE) concepts are difficult to test
Projection: attribute personal shortcomings  Thematic apperception test (TAT) : What’s good about it? – emphasizes
& faults on to others (man who wants to tell a story about a picture (when conscious experiences and change
have an affair accuses his wife of one) someone has a tattoo (tatt) you ask Individualistic Cultures: give priorities to
Denial: refuse to acknowledge reality (refuse what it means own goals over group goals. Define your
to believe you have cancer)  Rorschach inkblot: show an inkblot identify in terms of you (American society)
Displacement; take feelings out on NEO-FREUDIANS Collectivistic Cultures: give priority to the
something else (can’t tell at teacher, go CARL JUNG: believed in the collective goals of the group, your identity is part of
home and yell at the dog) unconscious (shared inherited reservoir of that group (China)
Reaction formation: transform unacceptable memory – explains common myths across SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
motive into his opposite (woman who fears civilizations & time) Behavior is a complex interaction of inner
sexual urges becomes a religious zealot) KAREN HORNEY: said personality process and environmental influence –
Regression: go into an earlier development develops in context of social relationships, which influences personality
period in the face of stress (during exam NOT sexual urges (security not sex is Emphasizes conscious awareness, beliefs,
week you start to suck your thumb) motivation, men get womb envy) expectations, and goals
Rationalization: replace a less acceptable ALFRED ADLER: coined “inferiority BANDURA! Talked about RECIPROCAL
reasoning with a more acceptable one (don’t complex” also argued a social nature DETERMINISM: interaction of behavior,
get into your college – justify it was a sucky TRAIT PERSPECTIVE cognitions, and environment make up you.
college anyway) Traits: enduring personality characteristics, {I’m outgoing
Sublimation: replace unacceptable impulse people can be described by these – have (behavior), I
w/ a socially acceptable one (person who strong or weak tendencies. They are stable, choose to teach
likes fighting becomes professional genetic, and predict other attributes. b/c it lets me be
kickboxer) Use factor analysis: statistical procedure outgoing
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES used to identify similar components (environment), and
Oral stage (0-18 months): focuses on the TRAIT THEORIES: I have thought this
mouth (born entirely id) Big Five: (by Costa & McCrae) (acronym through which is why I teach despite making
Anal stage (18 – 36 months): involves OCEAN) You vary on each of these less money (cognitive)}
eliminative functions (ego forms) o Openness : high levels = imaginative, Self-efficacy: belief that one can succeed, so
Phallic stage (3 – 6 yrs): focuses on genitals independent, like variety you ensure you do through actions
(superego forms) o Conscientiousness: high levels = *****FRQ FAVORITE
o Oedipal complex: young boys learn to organized, careful, disciplined Internal locus of control: you control your
identify w/ their father out of fear of o Extraversion: high levels = sociable, fun- own fate
retribution (castration anxiety) loving, affectionate (opposite is External locus of control: chance / outside
o Electra complex: young girls learn to introversion: shy, timid, reserved) forces control your fate
identify w/ their mother b/c they cannot o Agreeableness: high levels = soft What’s wrong with social-cognitive? – Too
with their father (penis envy) hearted, trusting, helpful specific, cannot generalize
Latency stage (6 yrs to puberty): psychic o Neuroticism (emotional stability): low What’s good about it? – Highlights
time out – personality is set situations, and cog. explanations
neuroticism (high stability) = calm, secure
 How do we test it? – Observations & o Mania: heightened mood, characterized
interviews (time consuming) DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS by risky behaviors, fast talking, flights of
Dissociative Identity Disorder: formerly ideas
Clinical Psychology multiple personalities – person fractures CAUSES OF DEPRESSIVE AND
(12 – 16%) into several distinct personalities who BIPOLAR DISORDERS
Defining abnormal behavior: normally have no awareness of each other. Biology: lower levels of serotonin &
o Requires “clinically significant” NOT SCHIZOPHRENIA! norepinephrine linked to depression, higher
disturbance in cognition, emotional o Usually caused by childhood abuse levels of norepinephrine linked to mania.
regulation or behavior AND Dissociative Amnesia + Fugue: following a Runs in families suggesting GENES. Twin
o Significant distress or disability social traumatic event a person leaves, taking on a studies also support this.
situations, occupations or other important whole new life & personality w/ no memory Cognitive: negative thought patterns leads to
activities of the previous one depression
Historical causes: biology, psychological SCHIZOPHRENIA PERSONALITY DISORDERS
issues, supernatural issues (demons) NOT MULTIPLE PERSONALITIES! Marked by disruptive, inflexible, enduring
Medical model: emphasizes treatment of THEY HAVE ONE PERSONALITY! behavior patterns – makes this very
SYMPTOMS AP difficult
exam favorite
to treat!
disorders, as they have a biological origin.
Biopsychosocial model: currently used o Positive Symptoms (not good – means o Antisocial: NOT “avoidant of
model – stress biological, psychological, something added)) socialization” – more like “anti-society” –
and social causes  Hallucinations: sensory experiences disregard for others, manipulative, breaks
Diagnosing abnormal behavior: w/o sensory stimulation (seeing and/or laws
o DSM: manual listing all currently hearing things) o Borderline: instable interpersonal
accepted psychological disorders.  Delusions: fixed, false beliefs (people relationships & self-image
Classifies them based on criteria – are out to get them, grandiose thoughts o Histrionic: excessive emotionality &
provides no explanation of causes or (I am God) attention seeking
treatments  Disorganized thinking, Disorganized o Narcissistic: need for admiration & lack
 Dorothea Dix – reform movement – speech of empathy
helped reform psychiatric care in early o Negative Symptoms (something taken OTHER DISORDERS
America away)  Obsessive-compulsive Disorders
 Rosenhan study – indvs. Purposefully  Flat affect: lack ability to show (OCD): person is overwhelmed with
got admitted to institutions, caused emotions both:
reform in institutions again  Impaired decision making, inability o Obsessions: persistent unwanted
ANXIETY DISORDERS to pay attention thoughts (did I leave the stove on?)
Most common disorders in the U.S. o Catatonia: become frozen over periods o Compulsions: senseless rituals (hand
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): of time (exhibit waxy flexibility: can washing)
person is generally anxious, all the time, for move them into new positions)  Post-traumatic stress disorders
NO REASON CAUSES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA (PTSD): flashbacks, problems w/
Panic Disorder: person is prone to frequent o Brain abnormalities: enlarged ventricles concentration, and anxiety following a
panic attacks (feeling like you’re having a (atrophy), smaller frontal cortex traumatic event (war, natural disasters)
heart attack). Can come w/ agoraphobia: o Genetics: runs in families, MZ twins at  Autism Spectrum Disorder: usually
anxiety about being in places you cannot higher risk diagnosed in childhood, characterized by
escape (fear of public spaces / people) o Dopamine hypothesis: too much an impairment in social relationships,
Phobias: irrational fear that disrupts your life dopamine in the brain communication, and activities
CAUSES OF ANXIETY DISORDERS: o Diathesis – Stress: individual has a TREATMENT OF DISORDERS
 Psychodynamic: repressed thoughts & genetic predisposition, disease must be  PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH: SEE
feelings manifest in anxiety and rituals PERSONALITY SECTION
“turned-on” by environmental stimuli
 Behaviorist: fear conditioning leads to
anxiety, which is then reinforced. Phobias (like stress) –most commonly developed  HUMANISTIC APPROACH:
might be learned through observational during college years o Client-centered therapy: (developed by
learning DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS CARL ROGERS) techniques include
Biological: natural selection favored those with Major depressive disorder: extreme active listening, accepting environment,
certain phobias (heights). Twins often share sadness and despair, apathy towards life focuses on patient growth (you figure
disorders. Often see less GABA in the brain Disruptive mood regulation disorder: out what needs to change and do it)
SOMATOFORM DISORDERS Frequent temper tantrums inconsistent with  COGNITIVE APPROACH:
 Psych disorders w/ no physical cause developmental level o Rational-emotive therapy: (developed
o Conversion disorder: loss of feeling or Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): form by ELLIS) techniques include analyzing
usage of a limb or body part (sight) – of depression that occurs typically winter – self-defeating behaviors to change
absolutely no physiological cause though found mostly in Northern areas (Alaska, thought patterns – and then change
o Illness Anxiety Disorder: person Ireland) UNIQUE TREATMENT = behaviors associated w/ said patterns
obsesses over the possibility of having LIGHT THERAPY  Best for anxiety disorders
an illness (no physical symptoms) BIPOLAR DISORDERS  Very confrontational
o Somatic Symptom Disorder: person Bipolar disorder: bouts of severe depression o Cognitive therapy: (developed by
interprets normal symptoms as a major & manic episodes BECK) illogical thoughts 
disease psychological problems, challenges
those thoughts
  Best for depression o Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): send o Informational social influence: we
 Self-directed – you figure out your electricity to induce minor seizures. Used conform to others b/c we think their
errors (rarely) to treat depression (when nothing opinions must be right (change answers
 BEHAVIORAL APPROACH (typically else works). Thought to “reboot” the brain to math hw)
used for anxiety disorders / phobias) o Psychosurgery (frontal lobotomy): Obedience: classic experiment done by
o Classical Conditioning: frontal lobe is surgically destroyed. Used MILGRAM: participants were to “teach”
 Counterconditioning Little Albert & to treat depression or violent individuals – another individual using shocks. 60% of
Watson almost never used anymore participants would administer lethal shocks
 Aversive conditioning: associate an to another person simply b/c they were told
unpleasant experience (e.g. nausea)
Social GROUP INFLUENCE
w/ an unwanted behavior (e.g. (8-10%) Social facilitation: perform better on simple
drinking alcohol) SOCIAL COGNITION or well learned tasks in the presence of
 Exposure therapy: slowly expose  Attribution theory: we explain others others
people to whatever it is that makes behaviors by crediting the situation or the Social inhibition: perform worse on difficult
them anxious person’s internal disposition (they only or unpracticed tasks in front of others
 Systematic desensitization: passed b/c they cheated) Social loafing: tendency for ppl in a group to
associate a pleasant relaxed state w/  Actor-observer bias: when its exert less effort when pooling their effort
gradually increasing anxiety others – blame the person, when its you, together (tug of war)
triggering stimuli (create a blame the situation Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness and
desensitization hierarchy – ex. List of  Fundamental attribution error self-restraint occurring in group situations
things about flying that makes you tendency for observers to underestimate that foster arousal and anonymity (mob
nervous – step through each one till the importance of the situation and mentality)
you can do it) overestimate the impact of personal Group polarization: the more time spent w/
 Intensive exposure therapy disposition (that guy cut me off b/c he’s a a group the stronger their thoughts /
(Flooding): force someone to jerk – not that his wife could be in labor) opinions will become
experience the fear (afraid of  Central route to persuasion: change Groupthink: desire for harmony w/in a
drowning, throw you in a pool) people’s attitudes through logical group leads to everyone going along w/ the
o Operant Conditioning: use behavior arguments and explanations. Leads to same thinking, ignoring other possibilities
modification (reward good behaviors w/ long term behavior change or bad ideas
token reinforcers ). Used in schools, w/  Peripheral route to persuasion: change Risky shift: groups make riskier decisions
autistic children, etc. people’s attitudes through incidental cues together rather than alone
 OTHER THERPAIES: (like a speaker’s attractiveness). Leads to PREJUDICE
o Family therapy: treats the family as a temporary behavior changes Ingroup: “US” – ppl w/ whom we share a
system, individual behaviors are  Foot in the door phenomenon: common identity
influenced by family dynamics complying w/ a small request then leads Outgroup: “them” – ppl perceived as
o Group therapy: therapy through a group to going along w/ a larger request (can I different or not part of the group
– lets patients see “they’re not alone” have $5? Yes. Now can I have $25?) Ingroup bias: tendency to favor our own
 BIOLOGICAL APPROACH: CALLED  Door in the face phenomenon: a large group
BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES request is turned down, when then leads Outgroup homogeneity bias: we are
o Drug therapies (psychopharmacology): you to be more likely to comply w/ a different, they are alike
 Anti-psychotics: decrease dopamine: small request (can I have $100? Heck no! Scapegoat theory: prejudice offers an outlet
treats schizophrenia How about $20? Okay) for anger by providing someone else to
 Side effects: TARDIVE  Halo effect: if your 1st impression blame
DYSKINESIA: hand tremors (similar someone is good you’ll interpret other Ethnocentrism: tendency to see your own
to Parkinson’s- due to lack of info about them in a good way group as more important than others
dopamine), worsening of negative STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT Just-world phenomenon: tendency for ppl
symptoms, extreme sedation (ZIMBARDO): classic “experiment” to believe that the world is just and
 Drug names: thorazine, clozapine where individuals were assigned to be therefore ppl get what they deserve
 Mood stabilizers: used in the treatment guards / prisoners. w/in days they took on (homeless ppl)
of BIPOLAR disorder : LITHIUM their roles and went too far. Highly AGGRESION
 Anti-anxiety drugs: depress the unethical  Social learning theory (BANDURA) –
central nervous system (dangerous in SOCIAL INFLUENCE observing violence in others makes us
combo w/ alcohol) Xanax, Ativan Conformity: classic experiment done by more violent for a time
 Anti-depressants: increase serotonin ASCH – showed lines of different lengths,  Frustration-aggression hypothesis:
through REUPTAKE inhibition confederates gave wrong answers to see if frustration creates anger, which leads to
 Side effects: drowsiness, anxiety, can others would go aggression
increase suicide risk in teens along w/ it  Hostile aggression: emotional /
 Drug names: SSRIs (selective o Normative impulsive anger (setting car on fire)
serotonin reuptake inhibitors) like social  Instrumental aggression: premediated –
Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil. SNRIs (selective influence: we goal is to get something (give me your
norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) conform to gain approval or to not stand lunch money)
Cymbalta, Effexor out from the group (be part of the norm) ATTRACTION
 Mere exposure effect: repeated exposure
to novel stimuli increases liking of them
 (the more time you spend around FRQ Tips:
something the more you like it)
 Physical attractiveness: pretty ppl are AP Exam Formatting: 1. Handwriting – FRQs are scanned in.
thought to be more credible, less likely to Its IMPERATIVE that you write in
do bad things 100 Multiple Choice Questions – 70 pen and write legibly. Skip lines
 Similarity: we prefer ppl similar to us minutes between each line if you have bad
 Passionate Love: Early stage of romance handwriting to make it easier.
– intense pos. obsession w/ another (due 10 minute break 2. If you accidently indicate you’re
to arousal) answering question one instead of
 Companionate Love: Later stage – deep TWO FRQs – 50 Minutes question two or vice versa, label at
attachment to someone who your life is the top of the page which question
intertwined w/ - best with equality and  One FRQ specific to research you’re answering, and how many
self-disclosure (revealing intimate details methods pages you took (page 1 of 2, etc).
about self)  One FRQ conceptually based 3. Answer BOTH questions. It’s not a
ALTRUISM choice.
 Altruism: unselfish regard for the 4. Answer what you know on EACH
welfare of others FRQ first. (you have MORE than
 Bystander effect: the more ppl around FRQ TIPS: enough room to space out your
the less likely we are to help someone in terms and keep them in order)
need (Kitty Genovese) Remember SODA CANS. 5. Then answer what you think you
 Social exchange theory: social behavior know
(helping) is an exchange process – aim is 6. Check your time – if you have <5
to maximize benefits and minimize cost
Spacing – leave a space between each
minutes reread what you’ve wrote
 Reciprocity norm: we give so we can get term that you are writing and fix anything – if you have >10
CONFLICT about. The directions tell you minutes –BS the terms you didn’t
 Social trap: conflicting parties pursue not to. Do it anyway. know at all, then reread and fix what
their own best interests, which can result you wrote on the ones you did
in destructive results (prisoner’s dilemma Order– write in order 7. Finally, DEFINE DEFINE
– game theory) (choose 5 or 15 demo) DEFINE.
 Superordinate goals: two or more Define – DEFINE EVERY TERM.**
groups work together to achieve a
common goal, creates cohesiveness THOMPSON’s Last Minute
SOCIAL SELF
**w/ the exception of IV /
Cramming Tips:
 False-consensus effect: we overestimate DV; experimental group and
the degree to which everyone else thinks / control goup 1. Review Social. 95% likeliness to be
acts the way we do on the FRQ
 Self-fulfilling prophecy: a belief that 2. Review Cognition. 90% likeliness to
leads to its own fulfillment (I expect you Apply – apply the concept to the be on the FRQ.
all to pass, you know this, you study – Context - scenario given – make sure 3. Review Research – ENTIRE FRQ
fulfilling my prophecy) to refer to the prompt, don’t GUARANTEED
give random examples with 4. Review Confusing Pairs.
Must have all 3 for FRQ – belief behavior change 5. Make sure you know what the
 belief no context. Use the terms
sympathetic nervous system does
from the prompt. and what correlation means.
 Self-serving bias: readiness to perceive
6. Sleep.
ourselves as favorably Apply - use the person’s name in 7. Eat.
 Spotlight effect (self-objectification) : Names - the prompt 8. Don’t chug 3 Red Bulls.
tendency of an individual to overestimate
the extent to which others are paying
attention to them Synonyms – don’t parrot the prompt –
 Stereotype threat: feel at risk of try to use synonyms when
conforming to the group, influences your possible
behaviors, cognitions