Environment and Ecology

Unit 1
Environment: Definition, Types of Environment,
Components of environment,
Segments of environment, Scope and importance, Need for
Public Awareness.

Ecosystem: Definition, Types of ecosystem,

Structure of ecosystem, Food Chain,
Food Web, Ecological pyramid. Balance Ecosystem.

Effects of Human Activities such as Food, Shelter,

Housing, Agriculture, Industry, Mining, Transportation,
Economic and Social security on Environment,
Environment Impact Assessment, Sustainable
Development
 Environment
• The word environment is derived from the French word
'environ' meaning surroundings.
• All the living and non-living things surrounding an
organism are included in environment. Therefore,
everything surrounding us is called "ENVIRONMENT".
• Every organism is surrounded by materials (Air/water/
land) and forces that constitute its environment.
• Every organism derives the requirements for its living
from the environment.
• The environment creates favorable conditions for the
existence and development of living organisms.
Types of Environment
 Components of Environment
• Biotic or Living
component: It consist of
plants & animals
• Abiotic or Non-living
component: It includes
soil, water, air & other
organisms
• Energy component: It
includes mainly solar
energy.
 Segments of Environment
Environment consist of 4 segments:
• Atmosphere
• Hydrosphere
• Lithosphere
• Biosphere
 Atmosphere
The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth
extends up to 20,000 km from the surface
• Source of oxygen for respiration
• Source of CO2 for Photosynthesis
• Source of rainwater for sustaining life
• Maintains heat of the earth
• Ozone layer blocks harmful UV radiation
Atmospheric Composition
 Structure of Atmosphere
• Troposphere (12 – 18kms)
• Stratosphere (18 – 50kms)
• Mesosphere (50 – 80kms)
• Thermosphere (or)
Ionosphere (80 – 700kms)
• Exosphere (up to 10000kms)
 Hydrosphere
• Watery part of the earth
• 97% in vast oceans & seas
• 2% in polar icecaps & glaciers
• 1% fresh water
• Moderating the temperature of the earth
 Lithosphere
• Rigid outer layer of earth’s crust
• Consists of the rocks & soil which contain minerals and ores
• Soil- mixture of organic and inorganic matter
• Role of soil- man depends soil for growing crops for his food
• Soil fertility depends on microbes
 Biosphere
• The realm of living things found in
atmosphere, hydrosphere & lithosphere
• It is large & complex
• Divided into smaller units- Ecosystems
• Within the biosphere, living things form
ecological communities based on the physical
surroundings. These communities are known
as biomes.
 Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies
• Environmental studies is a multidisciplinary
subject that covers various fields sciences viz.
biology, chemistry, physics, soil science,
geology and geography, microbiology,
physiology etc.
• Besides law, social science, and engineering,
mathematical modeling etc. are also required
for the study of the environment, and the
solution of environmental problems.
Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies
 Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies
• Life sciences e.g. zoology, botany, biochemistry,
genetics etc. are required for the study of living
organisms and their inter relationships.
• Basic concepts of physics, chemistry, geography,
atmospheric science and oceanography are
required for understanding the basic physical and
chemical structure of the environment, and to
study the transfer of energy in the environment.
 Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies
• Mathematics, statics, computer science etc.
are required for collection and analysis of
various types of environmental data, and for
environmental modeling.
• For studying socio-economic aspects of
various environmental problems sociology,
management and economics is required.
 Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies
• Civil engineering, chemical engineering,
mechanical engineering, and nanotechnology
are required for providing the solutions to
many environmental problems especially
related to pollution control, waste disposal
and wastewater-treatment etc.
• Environmental education and mass
communication are required to spread the
awareness about environmental problems.
 Multidisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Studies
• History is required for studying the devastation
caused by humans through the use of modern
science.
• Environmental laws are required for the
protection of environment through legal
measures.
• To sum up, environmental studies is a
multidisciplinary subject where we deal with
different aspects, which requires a holistic
approach.
 Scope of Environmental Studies
The scope of environmental studies can be
discussed as follows:
I. Concept of environment
II. Ecosystem
III. Natural processes in environment
IV. Resources and energy resources
V. Population
VI. Research and awareness
VII. Disaster management
VIII.Environmental management
 Scope of Environmental Studies
The scope of environmental studies include:
• Developing an awareness and sensitivity to the total
environment and its related problems
• Motivating people for active participation in
environmental protection and improvement
• Developing skills for active identification and
development of solutions to environmental problems
• Imbibe and inculcate the necessity for conservation of
natural resources
• Evaluation of environmental programs in terms of
social, economic, ecological and aesthetic factors.
 Importance of Environmental Studies
•Environmental factors have some characteristics of their own.
•Man is exploiting resources on a large-scale resulting in the destruction of
valuable resources.
•Serious environmental problems include disasters like earthquake, flood,
etc. Environmental studies explain the reasons, nature and effects of these
disasters.
•Environmental studies reveals types, causes, and effects of pollution and
techniques of pollution prevention.
•Environmental studies help in economy and welfare of human society.
•It helps in finding ways to maintain ecological balance.
•It trains us to conserve our fast depleting natural resources.
•It helps in inculcating attitude and values, encouraging environmental
protection and understanding of inter-dependence of nature and man.
 Need for Public Awareness
• It is essential to make the public aware of the consequences of environmental
degradation, if not retorted and reformative measures undertaken would
result in extinction of life. It is essential to get the country acquainted with
such challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly:
• Increasing population, Urbanization and poverty have generated pressure on
the natural resources and lead to a degradation of the environment.
• Agricultural growth: People must be acquainted with methods to sustain and
increase agricultural growth without damaging the environment.
• It is essential to rationalize the use of groundwater.
• Forests in India are shrinking owing to the pressure of agriculture and other
uses. It is essential to restore and conserve forests.
• Environmental pollution cannot prevented by laws alone. Public participation
is equally important with regard to environmental protection.
• Proper measures are required to conserve genetic diversity.
• Degradation of land (due to soil degradation, water and wind erosion) must
be avoided with proper measures.
 Need for Public Awareness
UNO has stated objectives of creating environmental
awareness among people:

•Awareness: Acquire sensitivity to the total environment and

its allied problems.
•Skill: Acquire skills for identifying environmental problems.
•Knowledge: To know conservation of natural resources.
•Evaluation ability: To evaluate environmental measures.
•Attitude and participation: To help people develop a sense
of responsibility and urgency regarding problems and
solutions. If we want to manage our planet, we have to
make all persons environmentally educated.
 Ecosystem
• Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment
because the latter provides materials and energy for the survival of the
former i.e. there is interaction between a biotic community and its
environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-sufficient unit
which is known as an ecosystem.
• Ecosystem are the parts of nature where living organisms interact among
themselves and with their physical environment.

• The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansley, an English botanist, in

1935. An ecosystem is the structural and functional unit of ecology
(nature) encompassing complex interaction between its biotic (living)
and abiotic (non-living) components.

• For example- a pond is a good example of ecosystem. A pond, lake,

desert, grassland, meadow, forest etc. are common examples of
ecosystems.
 Structure of Ecosystem
Each ecosystem has two main components:
• (1) Abiotic
• (2) Biotic
Relationships within an Ecosystem
 Functions of Ecosystem
Ecosystems are complex dynamic system. They perform
certain functions. These are:
•Regulation functions: Ecosystem regulates essential
ecological processes and life support systems.
Responsible for cycling of nutrients between abiotic and
biotic components (biogeochemical cycles). It provides
many services that have direct and indirect benefits to
humans (i.e. clean air, water and soil, climate regulation).
•Habitat functions: Ecosystems provide habitat to wild
plants and animals and thus conserve biological and
genetic diversity. It supports different food chains.
 Functions of Ecosystem
• Production Functions: Production of wide
range of goods ranging from food and raw
materials to energy resources and genetic
material. Photosynthesis and nutrients uptake
by autotrophs converts energy, carbon dioxide
and nutrients into a wide variety of
carbohydrate structures which are used by
secondary producers to create larger variety
of living biomass.
Types of Ecosystems
Natural Ecosystems
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
The ecosystem which is found only on landforms is known
as the terrestrial ecosystem.

• (a) Forest Ecosystem: A large number of organisms live

in a small space. They have an abundance of flora or
plants. These ecosystems are classified according to
their climate type.
Types of forest ecosystem:
a) Tropical rain
b) Tropical deciduous
c) Temperate rain
d) Temperate deciduous
e) Boreal
Components of Forest Ecosystem
Functions of Forest Ecosystem
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
• (b) Grassland Ecosystem: Comprise mainly of
the grasses with a little number of shrubs and
trees. Grazing animals, insectivores and
herbivores are mainly found in these regions.
The three major types of grasslands include
i) Temperate grassland
ii) Tropical Grassland and Savannas
iii) Polar Grassland
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
• (c) Dessert Ecosystem: Low precipitation,
generally less than 25 centimeters, or 10
inches, per year. The fauna and flora is
generally not much developed because of the
high temperatures, intense sunlight and low
availability of water. The main vegetation
include shrubs, bushes and a few grasses and
trees. Camels, reptiles and some insects and
birds are found in such regions.
 Terrestrial Ecosystem
• (d) Mountain Ecosystem: Most scattered and
diverse in terms of the habitats. A large number
of animals and plants are found in this ecosystem.
Though the conditions at the very high altitudes
allows only the survival of the treeless alpine
vegetation. The animals which live here have
thick fur coats for protection against cold and
generally have a long hibernation period in the
winters. The slopes at lower altitudes are
generally covered with coniferous forests.
 Aquatic Ecosystem
An ecosystem which exists in a body of water is known as an aquatic
ecosystem.
• (a) Freshwater Ecosystem: Very small in magnitude. These covers
only 0.8% of the earth’s surface and only account for 0.009% of
the total water present on earth. Many different species of
reptiles, amphibians, and around 41% of the world’s fish species
live in these ecosystems. Three basic kinds of freshwater
ecosystems include Lentic, Lotic, and Wetlands.
(i) Lentic ecosystems are slow-moving or still water like ponds or
lakes.
(ii) Lotic ecosystems are fast-moving water like rivers.
(iii) The wetlands are those systems where soil remains saturated for
a long period of time.
Aquatic Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

• (b) Marine Ecosystem: Biggest ecosystems.

They cover around 71% of earth’s surface and
also contain around 97% of the total water
present on earth. High amounts of minerals
and salts are generally present in the water.
They encompass not only the ocean floor and
surface but also tidal zones, estuaries, salt
marshes and saltwater swamps, mangroves
and coral reefs.
 Aquatic Ecosystem
Ocean Ecosystem
 Food Chain
The transfer of food energy from the producers,
through a series of organisms (herbivores to
carnivores to decomposers) with repeated eating and
being eaten, is known as food chain.

Food Chain

Grazing Detritus
Food Chain Food Chain

Predatory Parasitic
Food Chain Food Chain
 Food Chain
Grazing Food Chain: starts from the green plants that make food for herbivores
and herbivores in turn for the carnivores. Ecosystems are directly dependent
on an influx of solar radiation. This type of chain thus depends on autotrophic
energy capture and the movement of this captured energy to herbivores.

In a predator chain, a plant-eating animal is eaten by a flesh-eating animal.

Parasitic food chain starts from herbivore, but the food energy transfers from larger
organisms to smaller organisms, without killing in case of a predator. Thus, the larger
animals are called hosts and the smaller living organisms which acquire nutrition from
the hosts are called parasites.
 Food Chain
• Detritus Food Chain: start from the dead organic matter to the detrivore
organisms which in turn make food for protozoan to carnivores etc. It is
made up of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly
fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient requirements
by degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known as
saprotrophs (sapro: to decompose).
 Food Web
• The various food chains are interconnected to each
other to form a network called food web.
• A food web illustrates all possible transfers of energy
and nutrient among the organisms in an ecosystem,
whereas food chain traces only one pathway of food.
 Ecological Pyramids
• Ecological pyramids are the graphical representations of
trophic levels in an ecosystem.
• The base of each pyramid represents the producers or the
first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary or top
level consumer.
 Ecological Pyramids
• Pyramid of number: In this type of ecological pyramid,
the number of organisms in each trophic level is
considered as a level in the pyramid. The pyramid of
numbers is usually upright except for some situations
like that of the detritus food chain, where many
organisms feed on one dead plant or animal.
• Pyramid of biomass: In this particular type of
ecological pyramid, each level takes into account the
amount of biomass produced by each trophic level.
The pyramid of biomass is also upright except for that
observed in oceans where large numbers of
zooplanktons depend on a relatively smaller number
of phytoplanktons.
• Pyramid of energy: Pyramid of energy is the only type
of ecological pyramid, which is always upright as the
energy flow in a food chain is always unidirectional.
Also, with every increasing trophic level, some energy
is lost into the environment.
 Balanced Ecosystem
• The ecosystem is a dynamic system with occurrence of many events.
Despite all such events, ecosystem persists and recovers from minor
disturbances due to homeostasis.

• Homeostasis is equilibrium, or a balance of the organisms in an

ecosystem. This means the populations of species in the ecosystem are
relatively stable. Over time, these populations will change, but in the short
term, they should move up and down in cycles around an average value.
 Balanced Ecosystem
An ecosystem is balanced when natural animals
and plants are in harmony. In an aquatic
ecosystem, rocks are needed for shelter and
plants provide oxygen for fish. With increasing
pollution, change in migratory patterns and
rise of human population, many ecosystems
are in danger of losing that harmony.
Effects of Agriculture on Environment
 Effects of Housing on Environment

The way in which a house is built maintained and

used has a significant impact on environment.
•Use of non-renewable resources
•Energy consumption
•Water consumption
•Neighbourhoods
•Consumer information
 Effects of Housing on Environment
• Housing characteristics includes home decorations, pet keeping - significant
impact on the health of the residents.
• Poor housing - measurable effects on physical and mental health of the
residents.
• Air-tight sealing of modern buildings – reduces spiralling energy costs but
causes health problems due to indoor air pollution.
• Several building materials affect the indoor air quality and can cause ‘sick
building syndrome’.
• Production of plastics – generates the greenhouse gas namely CO2, VOCs and
PVC.
• The indoor air pollution is a major source of public exposure to air pollutants.
• The sources of formaldehyde in modem buildings include building materials,
smoking, household products, and the use of un-vented, fuel-burning
appliances, like gas stoves.
• Kitchen trash-bin contributes a huge volume of illness-causing bacteria and
unpleasant odour to indoor air. Cockroach droppings trigger allergic asthma.
 Effect of Mining on Environment
Mining is the extraction (removal) of minerals and metals from earth.
It causes the following impacts on environment:
• De-vegetation and Defacing of Landscape
• Deforestation
• Stripping of large areas of top soil
• Subsidence of Land
• Groundwater Contamination (high concentrations of arsenic and
sulfuric acid)
• Surface Water Pollution
• Air Pollution (some involve inadvertent dispersal of heavy metals
into atmosphere)
• Loss of biodiversity
• Destruction of resources
 Effects of Industries on Environment
The impacts of industry and its products may be positive
enhancing the quality of resource or extending its use or
they may be negative as a result of process and product
pollution and of the depletion of resources.
The impacts include:
Economic growth: MoEF reported the annual cost of
environmental degradation in India in the past few years
is averaging about 4.5% of GDP.
Environmental pollution: Vehicle exhaust, coal burning
and particles from coal combustion and factories in air
cause serious health problems
 Effects of Transportation on Environment
Transport activities resulted in growing levels of motorization and congestion thus causing
environmental problems.
The major impacts of transport on environment include:
•Climate change: Emission of CO, CO2, CH4, NOx, N2O, CFCs, PFCs, SiF4, benzene, heavy metals,
particulate matter. It contribute to global warming, increase in average temperature at the earth
surface, reducing snow cover of polar regions, depleting ozone layer, and increase in ocean heat
content.
•Air Quality: Highway vehicles, marine engines, locomotives, and aircraft cause air pollution and
affects human health. CO- affects bloodstream, NO2- reduces lung function, and SO2 and NOx- creates
acid rain, and particulate matter- cause allergies, respiratory problems, eyes inflammation and skin
irritation.
•Noise: risk of cardiovascular diseases and results in falling land values and loss of productive land
uses.
•Water Quality: Fuels, chemicals and other hazardous particulates discarded from cars, trucks,
aircrafts and trains contaminate lakes, rivers, wetlands, and oceans. The main effects include
dredging, waste, ballast waters and oil spills.
•Soil Quality: Coastal transport facilities cause soil erosion. Use of toxic materials by the transport
industry cause soil contamination.
•Biodiversity: Deforestation, reduction of wetland areas, restriction in growth of certain plants, and
extinction of various animal species are causes of transportation activities.
Effects of Transportation on Environment

• Solid waste associated with old vehicles and

construction of transportation facilities.
• Spills into land and water: accidental
discharge of hazardous materials during
transport. Also include run-off of toxic
materials from vehicles.
• Heavy metals and petroleum products from
vehicles contaminate land and storm water.
 Effects of Food on Environment
Food is any substance that is usually composed of carbohydrates,
fats, proteins and water that can be eaten or drunk by an animal
or human for nutrition.
Sources of food: plants, animals, fermented products such as
alcohol.
Main sources of human food: plants and animals
Sources of food for animals and humans: seeds of plants (cereals
like wheat, maize, rice), legumes (beans, peas, lentils), and nuts.
Other sources: fruits, vegetables (root vegetables, leaf vegetables,
stem vegetables.
Animals can be considered as food either directly or indirectly by
products they produce. Example: meat (direct product), milk
Food not from animals and plants: edible fungi (mushrooms), fungi
and bacteria used in yogurt, pickles, alcohol.
 Effects of Food on Environment
• Global grain production increased 3 times.
• Population growth increased to such an extent
in less developed countries that it outsripped
food production.
• Every year40 million people die because of
undernourishment (lack of sufficient calories)
and malnutrition (deficiency of specific
constituents of food) and overnutrition (eating
too much).
 Effects of Shelter on Environment
Where a person lives matters since both natural and built environment
influence health.
• Physical environment
Health inequalities (adequacy of housing, indoor air quality and water supply)
Outdoor air pollution causes coughing, asthma, and cardiovascular disease.
• Built environment
Influence physical and mental health through community design, adequate
housing, access to safe water, good sanitation, adequate access to
education, recreational services, public transit.
Provide opportunities for social interaction through social networks and
organizations.
Overcrowding and poorly ventilated houses increase susceptibility to disease.
Homelessness is a health issue.
A lack of housing contributes to a vicious circle
 Sustainable Development
Sustainable Development meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Agenda-21: proposes a global programme of action on sustainable

development in social, economic, and practical context for 21st century
having five significant agreements.
Agenda 21 sets out a plan of action to guarantee that life in the next
millennium will change substantially for the better. It was endorsed
by the world's governments at the UN Conference on Environment and
Development, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 1992. It was adopted by
more than 178 Governments.
It emphasise that everyone has the right to food, health care, shelter,
and education
 Sustainable Development
The objectives of sustainable development include:
•To maintain the living standards of people with equity and justice.
•To conserve and protect earth’s natural resources from misuse and
wasteful consumption.
•To innovate new technology and scientific techniques that work in
unison and are not opposed to it.
•To respect diversity and involve local and indigenous communities.
•To decentralise governance institutions and make them more
resilient, transparent, and accountable to people.
•To plan international institutions that recognise the poor nations’
requirements and support them to achieve their growth targets.
•To seek peaceful coexistence of all nations of the world.
 Sustainable Development

Conditions to achieve sustainable development are:

•Social equity: There should be equilibrium
between same generations and between two
different generations.
•Economical equity: Technology development
(producing drought tolerant varieties for uncertain
climates, vaccines for infectious diseases, clean fuel
for domestic/industrial use).
•Ecological security: Development process protects
our biodiversity, decreases soil erosion and
increases the forest cover area.
 Sustainable Development
Unsustainable to Sustainable Development
• Using appropriate technology which is eco-friendly, resource
efficient and culturally suitable.
• Adopting reduce, reuse and recycle approach
• Prompting environmental education and awareness
• Consumption should not exceed regeneration and changes
should not be allowed to occur beyond tolerance capacity of
the system.
 Environmental Impact Assessment
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool used to assess the significant effects of a
project or development proposal on the environment.
This is used to predict the environmental impacts of a project in the pre-planning stage itself so
that decisions can be taken to reduce the adverse impacts.
The important aspects of EIA are
• risk assessment,
• environmental management and
• post product monitoring.
EIA is to
• serve as a primary environmental tool with clear provisions.
• apply consistently to all proposals with potential environmental impacts.
• use scientific practice and suggest strategies for mitigation.
• address all possible factors such as short term, long term, small scale and large scale effects.
• consider sustainable aspects such as capacity for assimilation, carrying
capacity, biodiversity protection.
• lay down a flexible approach for public involvement.
• have in built mechanism of follow up and feedback.
• include mechanisms for monitoring, auditing and evaluation.
 Environmental Impact Assessment
Project Proposal: Submit in writing to IAA (impact assessment agency. It include all relevant
information including a land-use map before screening.
Screening: The project plan is screened for scale of investment, location and type of
development and if the project needs statutory clearance.
Scoping: The project’s potential impacts, zone of impacts, mitigation possibilities and need for
monitoring.
Collection of baseline data: Baseline data is the environmental status of study area.
Impact prediction: Positive and negative, reversible and irreversible and temporary and
permanent impacts need to be predicted which presupposes a good understanding of the
project by the assessment agency.
Mitigation measures and EIA report: The EIA report should include the actions and steps for
preventing, minimizing or by passing the impacts or else the level of compensation for probable
environmental damage or loss.
Public hearing: On completion of the EIA report, public and environmental groups living close to
project site may be informed and consulted.
Decision making: Impact Assessment Authority along with the experts consult the project-in-
charge along with consultant to take the final decision, keeping in mind EIA and EMP
(Environment Management Plan).
Monitoring and implementation of environmental management plan: The various phases of
implementation of the project are monitored.