THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

1. SPEARMAN’S TWO FACTOR THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

Charles Spearman (1863-1945), an English psychologist and the originator of factor analysis
was the first to claim that intelligence consists of general ‘g’ factor and specific ‘s’ factors. His
theory is known as ‘Two Factor Theory’(1904).

Spearman called this general factor as ‘mental energy’ which is determined innately. A
person cannot be trained to have a higher ‘g’factor. It is a part of who they are. People
possess general intelligence or ‘g’ in varying degrees. On the basis of this general
intelligence, we describe a person as either intelligent or dull.

In addition to this general or ‘g’ factor, he recognised the specific factors, each called ‘s’,
which are specific to different abilities. For example, test of arithmetic, spatial relationships,
verbal fluency, each of the specific intelligence measure a separate ‘s’. An individual’s
intelligence score reflects the amount of ‘g’ plus the magnitude of various ‘s’ factors
possessed by the individual. For example, one’s performance in spatial intelligence test
would be a function of a person’s general intelligence (g) and his spatial ability (s).

2. THURSTONE’S THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

Louis Leon Thurstone (29 May 1887 – 30 September 1955) suggested that intelligence is a
composite of seven distinct primary mental abilities (PMA).These are described below.

Inductive Reasoning: The ability to find rules or the logical reasoning ability. It is Intelligence
and Aptitude 7 9 the ability to find general rules and principles from the given information.

Memory: The ability to memorize and recall. It is the ability to memorize events, list of
words, mathematical formulas, dates, definitions etc.

Numerical Ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems. It is the ability to use numbers
with speed and accuracy, to compute answers to mathematical problems. It measures the
speed and accuracy of computational skills.

Perceptual Speed: The ability to visualize details rapidly. It is the ability to perceive or grasp
perceptual details quickly and accurately, to see differences and similarities among things.

Spatial Relations: The ability to understand relationship. The ability to visualise and
manipulate different geometric patterns, forms and imaginary objects in space.

Verbal Comprehension: The ability of reading comprehension; define and understand words,
concepts, ideas; verbal reasoning .

Word Fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly, i.e., to use words quickly and fluently in
performing tasks like naming word, rhyming, solving cross word puzzles.
 3. GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT (SI) THEORY

Unlike Spearman, Guilford believed that intelligence is a combination of multiple activities. .

In his Structure of Intellect Model, all the mental abilities were organized along three
dimensional framework: Content, Operations, and Product.

The Contents Dimension The contents dimension includes the broad areas of information to
which human intellect operations are applied. Initially, these included only four categories,
later on auditory and visual were separated making it five content dimensions. 1) Visual –
information perceived through seeing or the information arising from the stimulation of
retina in the form of an image. 2) Auditory – information perceived through hearing or
information arising from the stimulation of cochlea of the inner ear as a sound. (Figural:
Information that is non-verbal or pictorial, later divided into Visual and Auditory) 3) Symbolic
– information perceived as symbols or signs that stand for something else, has no meaning
by themselves (Arabic numerals, letters of an alphabet, musical and scientific notations). 4)
Semantic – concerned with verbal meaning and ideas. 5) Behavioural – information
perceived as acts or behaviour of people.

The Operations Dimension As the name suggests, this consists of six operations or general
intellectual processes: 1) Cognition – the ability to understand, comprehend, discover, and
become aware of information. Intelligence and Aptitude 8 1 2) Memory recording – the
ability to encode information. 3) Memory retention – the ability to recall information. 4)
Divergent production – the ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem; creativity. 5)
Convergent production – the ability to deduce a single solution to a problem; rule-following
or problem-solving. 6) Evaluation – the ability to judge whether or not information is
accurate, consistent or valid.

The Products Dimension The products dimension contains results of applying particular
operations to specific contents. There are six kinds of products in increasing complexity, they
are: 1) Units – represents a single item of information or knowledge. 2)
Classes – a set of items that share some common attributes. 3)
Relations – represents a connection between items or variables; may be linked as opposites
or in associations, sequences, or analogies. 4)
Systems – an organization of items or networks with interacting parts. 5)
Transformations – changes perspectives, conversions, or mutations to knowledge; such as
reversing the order of letters in a word. 6) Implications – predictions, inferences,
consequences, or anticipations of knowledge.

4. GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Gardner initially proposed eight Intelligence and Aptitude 8 3 types of intelligence which
later on he increased to nine.

Linguistic Intelligence refers to the ability to use language.

Logical-mathematical Intelligence is the ability to use logical reasoning and mathematical
ability.

Musical Intelligence is the ability to use rhythms, sounds and patterns to create, compose
and perform music.

Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence is the ability to use and control one’s body movements and
actions.

Spatial Intelligence is the capacity to perceive, understand and use spatial and visual
information effectively.

Interpersonal Intelligence refers to the ability to understand others and social interactions.

Intrapersonal Intelligence is the ability to understand oneself and know one’s thoughts,
emotions, feelings, motives and desires, and how these influence their behaviour

Naturalistic Intelligence is the ability to recognize and understand the various patterns in
nature.

Existential Intelligence Gardner (1998) added existential intelligence as the ninth intelligence
which refers to the sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions beyond sensory data
and about human existence such as meaning of one’s life, why have we Intelligence and
Aptitude come to this world, why do we die, where do we go after death etc.

Measurement of intelligence

Types

Individual and Group Tests The first of these classification, individual and group tests, is
based on their administration. An individual test is one that can be administered only at one
person at a time (Simon-Binet). group intelligence tests were developed to be administered
on a group of individuals at one go .

Verbal / non verbal tests Another classification of intelligence tests based on the form and
content of the test items is verbal/paper-pencil tests and non-verbal/performance tests.
Verbal tests use written language for its items and therefore, require the examinees to be
literate. Items of performance tests do not use language at all and are manipulative in form
and nature. Examinees are required to manipulate the items in a particular and desired
manner. Hence, such tests can be effectively administered on illiterates, children and deaf
persons also. Some of the performance tests claim to be suitably used at persons from
different cultures and prefer to be called as culture-free, culture-fair, culture-reduced and
cross-cultural tests.

Measurement scales
Stanford-Binet Test

Wechsler Intelligence Scales

Kaufman Assessment Scales

Intelligence and organisational behaviour

Intelligence, particularly emotional intelligence, plays a significant role in organizational

behavior, impacting various aspects of the workplace, including leadership, decision-making,
and employee interactions. While intellectual ability is crucial for certain jobs, emotional
intelligence, which includes self-awareness, social awareness, self-management, and
relationship management, is vital for fostering positive work relationships, managing
emotions, and improving overall workplace dynamics.

Application

 Leadership: Leaders with high EQ are better at understanding and motivating their
teams, fostering a positive and collaborative work environment.

 Employee Interactions: EQ helps individuals navigate workplace dynamics, resolve

conflicts constructively, and build strong relationships with colleagues.

 Job Satisfaction and Performance: A positive work environment, fostered by EQ, can
lead to increased job satisfaction and improved employee performance.

 Complementary:
While intellectual ability is important for certain tasks, emotional intelligence and
organizational intelligence are crucial for fostering a positive and productive work
environment.
 Teamwork and Collaboration:
Individuals with high EQ can effectively collaborate with others, regardless of their
intellectual abilities, creating a more cohesive and productive team.