Chapter – II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter begins with a review of the relevant literature for the current topic. The
literature review is a critical component of research because it provides the appropriate
conceptual and theoretical context. Numerous literatures pertinent to the study field have
been read in order to increase knowledge and a better understanding of the research
problem. This endeavour aided the researcher significantly in building a broad grasp of
the subject and identifying research gaps, which laid the groundwork for defining the
research problems and developing the conceptual framework for the current study. In
this context, a thorough assessment of the literature was conducted through numerous
national and international journals, books, newspapers, magazines, and websites.
2.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Arjun Banjade (2010)1 found that in the online version of Hindustan Times, there
is a high proportion of development news on issues relating to economic activities
including business and industry sectors, whereas agriculture and food, rural and urban
development was low on the priority ladder.
Samir Kumar Singh (2011)2, Fifty years back the feeling and the thinking that the
electronic communications were killing print. That judgments has proved wrong or at
least premature. Particularly as the apparent decline coincided with a drop in newspaper
circulation. The analysts so explained the statistics as to raise doubts that the decline was
real; experts disagreed about whether or not a problem in fact existed, and if it did, just
how serious it was; and historians pointed out that concern about declining literacy had
surfaced before and seemed cyclical in nature.
Bashir Ahmed Memon (2011), on his study of Sindh journalists found that half
the journalists moderately satisfied with their profession and their financial conditions,
mostly, they were unpaid and underpaid3.
Anbalagan and Sugantha (2011)4 in ‘Media Science and Communication Studies
Possessed in Different Countries-An Overview’, state that communication of information
1
Banjade, A. (2010), Development News in South Asian Online Newspapers : Content Analaysis of the
Kathmandu Post, the Hindustan Times and the Daily star.
2
Samir Kumar Singh (2011), Print Media Communication, Jnanada Prakashan, ISBN: 9788171392971.
3
Bashir Ahmed Memon(2011), The role and status of journalists in Sindh province, Department of
Media and Communication, University of Leicester.
4
Anbalagan, C. and Sugantha, T. “Media Science and Communication Studies Possessed in Different
Countries-An Overview”, THAVAN International Journal Research in Media Science, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.
44-48.
2
about science and technology is essential for social and economic development.
Communicating science to the public comprises diverse approaches such as public talks,
debates, exhibitions, publications, science theatre and films. Often, these activities form
a part of a wider campaign to engage people in science. Formulating programmes require
a collective effort between scientists and communicators.
Tomar, Ranu (2011)5 in her seminar paper on “Gender and Media: Status of
women journalist in Hindi Print Media in India”. The paper has attempts to explore the
struggle for transformation and bridging gap between social identities of women and
men. The relationship between media and women has a certain structure where women
are trapped as an object. She also states that the role of women in media decision making
is reflected in the poor representation of women issues and concerns.
In a study conducted by A.K. Singh (2011) 6 regarding development news in
Hindustan newspaper (Hindi edition), it was found that development news was rarely
covered, was covered when it was found amidst a controversy and there were no follow-
ups in the stories that did appear. Agricultural and rural news were also largely covered
when linked with corruption and faulty implementation, when it included a high profile
personality visiting a village, opening up of a new project/ services being introduced in
rural areas or when a program received a hefty sum from the government. There were
one-off instances that mentioned the problems faced by the farmers or the
underdeveloped conditions of a village, but mostly, they were given little space (Singh,
2011). In a study to understand the development news patterns in South-Asian online
newspapers,
Vipul Mudgal (2011)7 in a study to examine rural coverage in six newspapers
(three of India’s highest circulated newspapers each in Hindi and English, according to
Indian Newspaper Survey II, 2009) during the year 2009, concluded that the space given
to rural India in the mainstream press is a minuscule proportion of the newspapers’ total
coverage a total of 2%. Moreover, even this 2% statistic is deceptive since the major chunk
of this rural coverage (36%) is about issues relating to violence, crimes, accidents or
disasters. Agrarian themes such as farm production, yield, irrigation, seeds,
procurement, and general development-related issues receive less than 28% coverage
5
Tomar, Ranu in her seminar paper (2011), “Gender and Media: Status of women journalist in Hindi
Print Media in India” presented at University of Work, 19- ‘22 sept.
6
Singh, A.K., (2011), Coverage of development news in print media (a content analysis), Shodh
Sanchayan, Vol. 2, (1&2).
7
Mudgal V. (2011), Rural Coverage in English and Hindi dailies, Economic and Political Weekly,
Vol.35, pp.92-97.
3
and are mostly bought into media focus by bureaucrats, authority figures and politicians.
Moreover, most of the times, these agrarian themes signify wider economic activity with
implications for country’s trade, business and industry. Only 15% of rural news was
found to cover hunger, suicides, malnutrition, distress migration, displacement and
farmers movements. The study also found a predictable structure existing in the
presentation of rural news the news stories tended to be brief, single or double column
item (mainly found on the inside pages) and are formulated in matter-of-fact manner.
Explanations or likely causes of occurrences are rarely provided. Another interesting
finding of the study was that the majority of the rural news items had unidentified
sources (26%) or were without source (24%). The primary definers (the important and
most often sources quoted) were found to be government officials (28%).
These findings have found to be in direct contrast with the principles of ‘ethical
journalism’ (see Ram, 2005) as they clearly defy the basics of journalistic principles
including source credibility, watchdog-, agenda-setting- and educational functions of the
press. If 68 percent of the Indian population receives a mere 2% coverage in national
dailies, it can be concluded that the press has miserably failed in accomplishing its
social responsibility.
According to Adisa (2012)8 in ‘Rural Development – Contemporary Issues and
Practices’, very few years were given for the achievement of the MDGs. It is almost
certain that the goals are far from being achieved in most of the developing countries for
whom the MDGs were essentially set. The struggle thus continues for rural
development. As long as problems of poverty, disease, illiteracy, unemployment, poor
infrastructure, environmental degradation and others persist (or increase) in rural
communities, better and more result-oriented solutions to perennial and emerging
problems of rural communities would be required. But, rural development, in spite of
the variations in thresholds of rurality among nations, is not exclusively a Third World
developing countries process, owing to its multi-dimensionality.
Khattri, Neeraj and Pt. Amandeep (2013)9 in a study to assess the extent of
coverage and the way rural areas of Aligarh are projected in the mainstream Hindi press
found that in terms of rural coverage, Hindustan devoted nearly 2.92% of news whereas
Amar Ujala allotted roughly 2.05% of news to rural areas. In this study spanning a
8
Adisa, R. S. “Rural Development Contemporary Issues and Practices: Twenty-First Century as a Global
Necessity”, InTech,
9
4
month (1st January, 2013 31st January, 2013), it was also found that in the entire month,
two editorials each focusing on rural development were published. Although, the above-
mentioned studies (Khattri, Neeraj and Pt.Amandeep, 2013; Singh, 2011; Banjade,
2010) suffer from external validity due to a small sample size, the findings mentioned
are consistent with the findings of other studies in the related studies.
The Socio economic conditions of Kannada print Journalists (V Y Chintamini
2013)10 were found to be deteriorated over the period. Most of the kannada print
journalists were paid low salaries. A study on working women journalists conducted by
Akhileshwari (2013) reveal that English media persons were well paid off, when
compare to vernacular press. Women journalists were allotted soft beat news only.
A study conducted by Devender Bhardwarj (2014) 11 on women journalists
revealed that women's family and social responsibilities were major a hindrance for the
working women journalist to continue their job.
Chinmay Bhattacharya (2013)12, Future of Print Media in India - A Study, print
media especially newspaper circulations continue to rise strongly in Asia and the Middle
East, offsetting decline in print circulation in Europe, North America and Latin America.
Global circulation increased by 1.1 per cent between 2010 and 2011, according the
World Press Trends update. Asia now accounts for a third of global circulation and has
seen circulations grow by 16 per cent over five years, while those in Western Euprope
and North America have declined by 17 per cent during the same period. India is one of
the oldest civilizations in the world and it is the world’s largest democracy. Media of
India play a vital role in Indian society, and here print media is a bigger part.
Ramesh Pandita, (2013)13, Scenario of Print Media in Jammu & Kashmir
(India) : An Analytical Study”, The present study is an attempt to understand the
various aspects of periodical publishing in general and newspapers in particular in the
10
Y.V. Chintamani,(2013) Socio economic Conditions of Kannada Print Journalists, Doctoral
Thesis ,Mysore University.
11
. Bhardwaj, Devender-2014, Status of working women journalists in India, a study of Delhi NCR,
Manav Rachna International University.
12
Chinmay Bhattacharya (2013)?, Future of Print Media in India - A Study, Engineering Assistant
(Publication and Printing) Indian Statistical Institute, Vol.No.____ pp.152-156.
13
Ramesh Pandita, (2013), Scenario of Print Media in Jammu & Kashmir (India) : An Analytical Study”,
Panditat, J Mass Communicat Journalism, Volume 4 • Issue 1 , pp.1-9.
5
state of Jammu & Kashmir India. The study is an analysis of secondary data with the
main aim to put forth the actual scenario of the print media industry of Jammu &
Kashmir, lasting around ive decades viz. for the period 1964-2013. Print is still the
preferred news media across the globe especially to 65% global population which is still
deprived of the technological blessing in the form of internet. Print news media is bound
to grow stronger both in terms of readership and business and internet is no immediate
threat to it.
Anamika Ray and Ankuran Dutta, (2014)14, Information Imbalance: A Case Study of
Print Media in India, The fundamental concerns of imbalances in information and
communication had been discussed for a longtime globally. The American media scholar
Wilbur Schramm (1964) stated that the flow of news among nations is thin, that much
attention is given to developed countries and little to less-developed ones, that important
events are ignored and reality is distorted. After a long discussion and debate over media
representations of the developing world in UNESCO in the late 1970s and early 1980s, a
new term was coined as ‘the New World Information and Communication Order
(NWICO or NWIO).’ The term was widely used by the MacBride Commission, which
was charged with creation of a set of recommendations to make global media
representation more equitable.
Charvak (2015)15, PRINT MEDIA COMES TO NORTH EAST INDIA, he
geographical, demographic and historical isolation of the region have exercised
considerable influence on the growth of print media in North East. History of Print
Media for the North East however remained less documented and read till today.
Scholars of mainland India have less interest of conducting research on this area, while
scholars of North East lack in terms of resources and scope. In this context, this paper
seeks to offer a fundamental reading of the history of print media in the seven states of
North East India. It is however by no means, a complete compendium of the history of
press in North East India. It does offer only a rudimentary level of historical
documentation and attempts to reflect the specificities of advent of print media in the
seven sisters of North East India. It is a documentation of the summary of the advent of
Print Media in North East both from primary and secondary data.
14
Anamika Ray and Ankuran Dutta, (2014), Information Imbalance: A Case Study of Print Media in
India, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 7, pp.1-5.
15
Charvak (2015), PRINT MEDIA COMES TO NORTH EAST INDIA, Global Media Journal – Indian
Edition Sponsored by the University of Calcutta/www.caluniv.ac.in, Vol. 6/No. 1& 2, pp.1-36.
6
Ritumani Haloi (2015)16 main objective of this paper is to examine the
significance and constraints of media (Electronics and Print) in rural development
especially in the state of Assam. Changing the mindset of the viewers, media persons and
political and administrative bureaucrat one can solve and minimize the problems of
media industry.
A study (Pillai2015)17 on non journalists of print media in Kerala, too revealed
that stress in the workplace reduces productivity, increases management pressures, and
makes people ill in many ways, evidence of which is still increasing. One more study on
women journalists based in Karnataka unveiled that women were seen enjoying almost a
similar status on par with men. Women were rarely considered as inferior and most of
the women journalists in the English electronic media had handled risks and proved their
capability. Kannada print and electronic media did not enjoy the status as the women in
English media.
Muhammad Samar, Hassan Ali & Muhammad Waqas (2016) 18 the role of mass
media in rural development in District Rajanpur. In the findings they suggest The
Government should take steps to raise literacy rate in the rural area. possible uses of print
media in development.
A study by Ranu Tomar (2017)19 in Delhi found that women lack basic facilities like
transport, maternity leave, childcare etc. in their organisations. A study on Global
science journalists London unveiled that most of the science journalists were happy in
their profession and found that global south journalist were younger than the western
regions.
Adhrit Chandra Pati Tripathi (2017)20 In this article the researcher has
investigated the role of mass media in rural development in Raebareli and Varanasi
16
Ritumani Haloi (2015) Media and Rural Development. International Journal of Humanities & Social
Science Studies (IJHSSS) ISSN: 2349-6959 (Online), ISSN: 2349-6711 (Print) Volume-II, Issue-I, July
2015, Page No. 239-246.
17
Subeesh M.M & Dr. B. Vijayachandran Pillai, (2013) Stress among Non-Journalist of Print Media in
Kerala –a validation test of Cooper’s Occupational Stress ,International Journal of Management and
Social Science Research Review, Vol.1, Issue.10, April - 2015. Page 120.
18
Muhammad Samar, Hassan Ali & Muhammad Waqas . The role of Mass Media in rural development :
A case study in district Rajanpur. International Journal of Research. ISSN (0) 2348-6848.
19
Ranu Tomar (2017)Understanding Women Journalists’ Experiences of Working in Hindi Print
Journalism in Cities of Madhya Pradesh,PhD thesis submitted to Tata institute of social sciences.
20
Adhrit Chandra Pati Tripathi (2017) Role of Mass Media in Rural Development of the Raebareli and
Varanasi Districts of Uttar Pradesh. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-2,
ISSN: 2454-1362.
7
districts of Uttar Pradesh about the rural development programmes in their areas. The
majority 47.2% respondents were getting information about the rural development
programmes from interpersonal sources, followed by 23.2% from newspaper, 16% from
television, 13.6% who were getting information from radio, and none from internet.
Thus, out of total 500 respondents.
A study by Ranu Tomar(2017)21 on Women journalists from four cities Bhopal,
Indore, Jabalpur and Gwalior found that woman, as an earning member do not liberate
her socially or economically notwithstanding the fact that a working daughter-in-law was
socially much celebrated personality. This study revealed a constant struggle of women
journalists with multiple patriarchal structures in marriage and motherhood.
Iyer Venkatesh B. (2017)22 in his research titled “Study of impact of internet and
other media before print media”. The study has been conducted with object of
understanding the present scenario of print media in India specifically with respect to the
state of Gujarat and the evolution of print media in India, adaptation of print media in the
current competitive scenario and to study the readership behaviour of consumers in
Gujarat as also the consumer’s and industry’s perceptions of newspapers in relation to
other media.
Dr. C. Pichandy, V. Ashok Kumar at.el., (2014)23 “Indian Software Professional’s
Preferences of Print and Online Newspapers in India”. The large-scale penetration of
internet has resulted in the culmination of a new generation of readers in software
professionals who prefer knowing news just at the click of a button. This slow
transformation among news consumers from print to online newspapers has laid
impetus to know what holds the future of print newspapers. Keeping in pace with
developing news dissemination systems, although slower to adapt, print newspapers are
now embracing innovative technologies to enhance their business. In this backdrop of a
transition from the traditional print media to the digital enterprise, this research
focusing on the software industry, which plays a major role in the growth of Indian
economy, becomes necessary to study the preferences of educated and a niche segment
21
Ranu Tomar (2017)Understanding Women Journalists’ Experiences of Working in Hindi Print
Journalism in Cities of Madhya Pradesh,PhD thesis submitted to Tata institute of social sciences.
22
Iyer Venkatesh B. (2017), “Study of impact of internet and other media before print media”,
23
Dr. C. Pichandy, V. Ashok Kumar (2014), “Indian Software Professional’s Preferences of Print and
Online Newspapers in India”, American Research Institute for Policy Development, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp.
59-76.
8
of the news consumers. A useful outcome of the study is that though there is tremendous
digital penetration in a Tier II city like Coimbatore, the traditional print media still
continues to hold its dominance. Unlike the Western countries, where the digital
influence has been remarkable, it’s a different scenario here with most people still
preferring to read through print newspapers.
ASHWARYA LOCHAN AGARWAL & DR.SATISH KUMAR (2018) 24, “A
Study of Print Media Growth in Communication”. Development communication is a
communication used for the development of human beings. Print media and electronic
media both assume a noteworthy part in the development communication of any country.
In India, the Government utilizes print media to secure wide scope of messages through
various newspapers and journals. Print media as a traditional media assumes a
noteworthy part in the development communication. In India, print media qualities have
to a great extent been formed by its verifiable experience and, specifically, by its
relationship with the opportunity battle and in addition developments for social
emancipation, change, and enhancement. Today different present day and complex
advances are utilizing by the print media in both created and immature nations and they
likewise confront solid rivalry from electronic media. This article studies the
dissemination patterns of the print media: newspaper and magazines in India and
different few countries and furthermore examined how the part of print media in the
development communication is changing in ongoing time. It likewise focuses on what is
the effect of new electronic media on the print media.
P. Indhumathi (2019)25, A STUDY ON EFFECTIVENESS OF PRINT MEDIA
NEWSPAPERS AMONG THE CONSUMERS IN VELLORE CITY, Print media still
forms an important part of media industry which has been giving competition by
electronic media and new technology called e-newspaper applications. But still,
newspaper holds its value even today and is competing strongly with technology backed
media. Basically said, words printed with ink on paper that is still attached in different
24
ASHWARYA LOCHAN AGARWAL & DR.SATISH KUMAR (2018), “A Study of Print Media
Growth in Communication” IJRAR- International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews,
VOLUME 5 I ISSUE 2, pp.2160-2164.
25
P. Indhumathi (2019), A STUDY ON EFFECTIVENESS OF PRINT MEDIA NEWSPAPERS
AMONG THE CONSUMERS IN VELLORE CITY, Suraj Punj Journal For Multidisciplinary Research,
Volume 9, Issue 8, pp.1-6.
9
ways provide different kinds of Information, Education, and Entertainment. These may
consist of chapters or themes, pictures, advertising and so on and the emphasis is made
on make-up and an attractive appearance. The newspaper is the most popular media in
the print category. Today reading newspapers is habitual activity for the educated people
all over the world. Message appearing in the newspapers are normally talked about and
discussed. Print media make use of the printing means to spread some news, information
or message among a large number of people. Hence, this paper aims to highlights the
effectiveness of Print media newspapers among the consumers in Vellore city.
Shakuntala Rao (2019)26, Indian Journalism in a New Era: Changes, Challenges, and
Perspectives, Journalism in India and across the world has been morphing at a rapid
pace. Indian journalism has not received its fair share of attention which is an issue this
book aims to address. Shakuntala Rao brings together an edited volume on Indian
Journalism in a New Era, and it deals with the evolution of journalism in India, the
various challenges and new perspectives emerging through the works of 21 authors.
Assimilating literature of this kind about journalism in a country as vast and diverse as
India is rare, and this is a welcome beginning to mapping the news media in the country
in the age of new media.
Sommerlad (1969) in the book titled Press in Developing Countries compared
development of the Press in 96 developing countries spread across Africa, Asia, South
America and Latin America. The researcher went into great detail on the importance of
the press in the country's economic development, as well as the underlying causes for
print publications' survival and growth in Third World countries. In addition to all of the
challenges of support, paper, equipment, and employees, the press in a developing
country had a distinct policy dilemma in balancing its function as the people's voice and
the government's megaphone. Every newspaper in a developing country felt this tension
to a greater or lesser extent, and its role in the country's progress relied on how it
resolved it. The study looked at the difficulties of the press in developing countries and
put them in a global context.
26
Shakuntala Rao (2019), Indian Journalism in a New Era: Changes, Challenges, and Perspectives, Oxford
University Press, 2019, 396 pp., 995.
10
Singh (2016) edited a book titled The Role of Media in Promoting Regional
Understanding in South Asia. The book was divided into three sections, each focusing on
a different aspect of media and South Asia. Five research papers focused on the function
of media in affecting public discourse in South Asia in the first section. The book's
second section included seven research papers on the topic of media in South Asia:
Country Perspectives. Four research papers were included in the book's third and final
section, which dealt with the question of media influence on governments' foreign and
security policies. Myanmar was also represented in the book, in addition to the other
eight SAARC members. As a result, this book gave useful information about the media
in nine South Asian countries.
Ranjan, A. (2016). The Role of Media in Promoting Regional Understanding in South
Asia.
Oranga C.J.O. (2014) is his research titled The Role of Print Media in Regional
Integration: The contribution of three main East African newspapers was investigated in
the case of the East African Community. He had observed the trend of regional
cooperation coverage in the region using the content analysis method. He employed the
interview method to have a better understanding of the challenges that journalists
encounter in this profession. He admitted that the print media lacked a strategy for
encouraging regional collaboration in the East African community. Journalists were
frequently faced with the difficulty of choosing between their particular community's
interests and the wider interests of the East African community as a whole. They needed
to be trained and skilled in order to analyse and evaluate current events that could have
an impact on the future of the East African community.
Oranga, C. J. O. (2014). The Role of the Print Media in Regional Integration: The Case of the East African Community (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Nairobi).
Sonia Livingstone, Leah A. Lievrouw (2006) The second significant issue that
distinguishes new media from traditional mass media channels and content is the
persistent sagacity of interactivity associated with new media channels, that is, the
selectivity and reach that media technologies offer users in their choices of information
sources and interaction with other people.
Lievrouw, L. A., & Livingstone, S. (2006). Introduction to the updated student edition. Handbook of new media: Social shaping
and social consequences of ICTs, 1-14.
11
According to World Health Organizations (1948) stress are states of comprehensive
physical, mental and social illness in a person. Though, no profession is stress-free.
Some degree of strain and anxiety that could result in productivity and satisfaction at
work. It may lead to negative results like mental and physical illness if the stress is
excessive (Teasdale. 2006).
Teasdale, E. L. (2006). Workplace stress. Psychiatry, 5(7), 251-254.
Donsbach (2014) and Patterson (2013) have advocated for the adoption of knowledge-
based journalism as a solution for the shortcomings of journalism. This concept proposes
that journalists should function less like generalists and more like doctors, lawyers, or
other highly trained professionals. Undergoing such training would increase the quality
of reporting, sourcing, and news judgment. In addition, these scholars argue that rigorous
intellectual training would preserve journalistic standards amid an overabundance of
non-professionalized information available online.
Donsbach, W. (2014). Journalism as the new knowledge profession and consequences for journalism
education. Journalism, 15(6), 661-677.
Donsbach (2014) explains certain ways in which journalism programs could implement
the principles of knowledge-based journalism. Among these, he suggests that journalism
students can pursue a master's degree in a different discipline to improve their expertise
in a given subject (e.g., environmental science, political science, etc.). Similarly, he
suggests that non-journalism graduates can pursue a master's degree in journalism.
Donsbach, W. (2014). Journalism as the new knowledge profession and consequences for journalism
education. Journalism, 15(6), 661-677.
Schultz (2002) reported limited differences in role conceptions and audience perceptions
between journalists in the U.S. with graduate degrees and those with only bachelor's
degrees, although the former were more likely to embrace an interpretative role.
Nevertheless, this finding offers some support that knowledge-based journalism as
measured by degree attainment produces more authoritative and/or pedagogically
inclined journalists. But it remains unclear to what extent the experiences of journalists
with higher-level degrees encompass the tenets of knowledge-based journalism or
whether such choices help improve the quality of specialized reporting, such as
environmental or science journalism.
Schultz, T. (2002). Does education matter? Characteristics of journalists who went to graduate school. Journalism, 3(2), 223-238.
12
Shameer (2018) Many public opinion surveys revealed that the public considers
journalists as the least trustworthy entity. For the public, journalists are either
money-grabbing agents or obliging the political elites. This is because the
expansion of media is briskly decreasing the value of journalists in many countries.
Shameer, S. M., & Reddy, V. S. (2018). Social Composition of Broadcast Journalists in India. Research Journal of Humanities
and Social Sciences, 10(2), 687-690.
According to Brédart & Holderness (2016) today journalism practices are greatly
expanding but the values are briskly decreasing. The normative standards of the
workplace and professional life are declining and the same is happening to the news
media industry. Journalists and their unions are facing certain problems concerning their
rights‟ like provision and unpaid/low salaries. As journalism is one of the reputable
professions but not providing decent salaries to its employees. Newspapers are already
facing unstable economic conditions, perpetuated with recent economic changes
that are putting journalists under pressure.
Brédart, H., & Holderness, M. (2016). Rights and jobs in journalism: Building stronger unions in Europe. European Federation of
Journalists, Brussels.
El-Sheikh, (February 27, 2018) Due to unstable conditions, some journalists receive
monthly salaries in portions. They are torn between either to follow their passions
or quit for extra income.
El-Sheikh, W., ... & Samaan, Z. (2018). Profile of journalists and risk factors: A case-control study. PLoS One, 13(2), e0192998.
According to Elliott, Elbahtimy & Srinivasan (2012) journalists all over the world
are increasingly facing threats, physical harassment, and even murders. This is not
only an explicit infringement of Human Rights but also, an alarming situation for
society. Their exploitation means refraining from freedom of expression and therefore,
freedom of the right to know.
Elliott, S., Elbahtimy, M., & Srinivasan, S. (2012). Threats to the Right to Life of Journalists.
Rotwilm, (2014) Today, the world and professions are vastly expanding, so more
skills and expertise are needed. Therefore, professional life also demands journalists to
do multi-tasking and adopt various liabilities all at the same time. This is done
13
by working as a journalist in media organization and also running personal blogs or
working as freelance journalists in the other news media organizations.
Qamar, A., Manzoor, S., & Shahzadi, M. A. I. (2020). Problems of Working Journalists in Pakistan. sjesr, 3(2), 267-277.
Murphy (2019) In many regions where journalism is considered as a key to information,
the development and progress of this profession are absent. This is because journalism
contains a professional ideology that individuals can only attain through
professional training and guidance.
Murphy, L. (2019). Mary Lynn Stewart. Gender, Generation, and Journalism in France, 1910–1940.
Shameer (2018) Due to the existing hardships faced by journalists, their performance is
rapidly declining. Workplace environment, opportunities, safety, harmony,
relationships, and respect ensure the employees' contributions. Likewise, in news
media organizations job security, competitive salaries, work-autonomy, and others
are the key indicators of the working conditions.
Shameer, S. M., & Reddy, S. (2018). Perceptions of broadcast journalists on job related aspects. International Journal of
Research in Social Sciences, 9(4), 811-825.
Another study conducted by Ireri (2016) also validated the notion of low and unpaid
salaries to the journalists in Kenya. The results of his study revealed that out of n=504
participants, 61% of the journalists were dissatisfied with their jobs due to
comparatively low salaries. Therefore, the researcher argues that poor income is causing
Certain negative impacts on journalists‟ work performance in Kenya.
Ireri, K. (2016). High job satisfaction despite low income: A national study of Kenyan journalists. Journalism & mass
communication quarterly, 93(1), 164-186.
According to Ofili, Tobin, Ilombu, Igbinosun, & Iniomor (2014), job satisfaction among
journalists is directly linked with their working environment. If there is a higher level of
stress, it can be because of tight deadlines, long working hours, unsafe job environments,
and others.
14
Ofili, A. N., Tobin, E. A., Ilombu, M. A., Igbinosun, E. O., & Iniomor, I. (2014). Assessment of job satisfaction, job stress and
psychological health of journalists in South-South, Nigeria. International Journal of Medicine and Biomedical Research, 3(3), 209-
218.
von Rimscha (2015) examined the job satisfaction level among media workers. The
results unveiled that people who work in production departments were comparatively
less satisfied with their jobs than the others. The researcher also found that
autonomy was an important determinant of job satisfaction. However, media sellers
were satisfied with their jobs as they did not have any issues concerning job autonomy.
Von Rimscha, M. B. (2015). The impact of working conditions and personality traits on the job satisfaction of media
professionals. Media Industries, 2(2), 17-41.
Cabedoche (2019), Furthermore, due to the development of new media technologies,
journalists require relevant skills and training. Due to the absence of these skills
they face certain challenges which also cause them stress and affect their
performance.
Cabedoche, B. (2019). Tourya GUAAYBESS,(2019), The Media in Arab Countries. Londres, ISTE Ltd/Hoboken (N.-J.), Wiley
John and sons. Communication. Information médias théories pratiques, 38(2).
Shalini, (2017) Working more than eight hours inevitably harms their physical and
mental health. Like other organizations, work stress on media professionals,
particularly on journalists, is a highly considerable phenomenon today. It is a black
plague for journalists who tend to work for the betterment of society. Despite
technological integration, journalists are stressed with the workload and tight
deadlines.
Priya, S., Sequeira, R., Chandra, J., & Dandapat, S. K. (2019). Where should one get news updates: Twitter or Reddit. Online
Social Networks and Media, 9, 17-29.
Ajayi, (2018) As professional stress and pressure, both are among the common
challenges to the work performance of the employees. Excessive workload, tight
deadlines, and pressure from colleagues or external forces adversely influence one‟s
ability to perform well.
Ajayi, S. (2018). Effect of stress on employee performance and job satisfaction: A case study of Nigerian banking
industry. Available at SSRN 3160620.
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2.2 RESEARCH GAP
RESEARCH GAPS IDENTIFIED IN THE EARLIER RESEARCH STUDIES
The earlier research works had examined the aspect of journalism in India under
various contexts. The earlier works had examined the problems and prospects of
journalists in India. The earlier works had examined the work-life balance of
journalists in India.
Very few research works were done in the state of Andhra Pradesh and particularly
considering Krishna, and gunutr districts. The earlier works had concentrated
very less on demographic, socio-economic conditions of the aspects of Journalists
in rural areas.
Very few research works were carried out on the aspect of problems faced by
journalists in their work environment, Most of research studies have only
included journalists effectiveness on other variables but a very less or no study
has included governmental or political threats which may arise in job life of
journalists. Hence, this present study is designed and carried out as it becomes
more distinct from the other research studies.
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