1.

) Compare and Contrast the Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits

The Pulmonary Circuit is responsible for taking deoxygenated blood (blood used up by our
body) from the heart to lungs for gas exchange to occur and oxygenate the blood before the
pulmonary veins return the oxygenated blood to the heart for redistribution. On the other hand,
the Systemic Circuit is responsible for the blood flow/exchange that occurs between our body
and heart. Specifically, Oxygenated blood is taken from the heart (left ventricle) and distributed
throughout the body through our systemic arteries and sent back to the heart through the
systemic veins and our two vena cava.
2.) Describe the macroscopic and microscopic anatomy of the heart wall
The heart wall is divided into 3 layers:
>Epicardium (Outermost)
>Myocardium (Intermediary): cardiac muscle cells, blood vessels, and nerves (Muscle cells)
>Endocardium (innermost): Internal, Endothelial surface that lines chambers (Endothelial cells)
-It is surrounded by the pericardium, which also is divided into:
>Outer (Parietal>Fibrous) (Outermost)
>Pericardial Cavity (Intermediary): holds pericardial fluid, which reduces friction
>Epicardium (Visceral Layer): produces pericardial fluid
3.) Describe how the heart is oriented within the thoracic cavity and explain the
superficial anatomy of the heart
The heart is located in the middle of the Thoracic Cavity and is oriented obliquely, with the apex
of the heart pointing down and to the left.
The heart also has 5 surfaces:
>Base (posterior)
>Diaphragmatic (inferior)
>Sternocostal (anterior)
>Left pulmonary Surface
>Right Pulmonary Surface

4.) Compare and contrast the anatomy of the four chambers of the heart
The starting pathway of the blood, the first chamber, would be the Right Atrium.
The Right Atrium is connected to the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava to receive deoxygenated
blood from the body. In addition to this, the Right Atrium is also connected to the Right Ventricle
through the Tricuspid Valve and features a Fossa (Fossa Ovale, which was Foramen Ovale
before birth) and a Coronary Sinus. The Right Ventricle is the ventricle which features a thinner
wall in comparison to its left counterpart as it only pumps a short distance to the lungs (pumped
through the Pulmonary Valve). In addition to its thinner wall, the Right Ventricle also features a
moderator band which prevents the chamber from over-expanding. Following this, the Left
Atrium is connected to the left and right pulmonary veins while also being connected to the Left
Ventricle through the bicuspid valve. The Left Ventricle has walls thicker than the Right Ventricle
as it pumps blood throughout the body through the Aortic Valve.
5.) Compare and contrast the anatomy of the right and left coronary arteries
*The Right Coronary Arteries are much smaller as they provide blood to the smaller region of
the heart (the right side), as they only pump blood to the lungs. On the other hand, the Left
Coronary Arteries are much larger and more extensive as they provide blood to the larger
region of the heart, which provides blood throughout the body (larger distance). This difference
is similar to how the Left Ventricle’s walls are much thicker than the Right Ventricle’s walls as
they experience larger amounts of pressure to compensate for larger blood travel distances.

6.) Explain how blood flows through the various chambers of the heart
1.)The (deoxygenated) Blood first enters our heart through the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava into the
Right Atrium.
2.) The Blood is drawn from the Right Atrium to the Right Ventricle (Ventricular Diastole and Atrial
Systole) through the Tricuspid Valve
3.) The Right Ventricle pumps blood to the lungs through the Pulmonary Valve then Pulmonary Trunk and
finally the Pulmonary Arteries
4.) After Gas exchange in the lungs, the oxygenated blood is returned to the Left Atrium through our
Pulmonary Veins (Left and Right)
5.) The Blood is drawn from the Left Atrium to the Left Ventricle (Ventricular Diastole and Atrial Systole)
through the Bicuspid Valve
6.) The Oxygenated blood is sent through the Aortic Valve and Aorta to be distributed throughout the
body’s systemic arteries
7.) The Body’s systemic veins return the blood to the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava

7.) Explain what pacemaker cells are and the role they play in coordinating the cardiac
cycle
*Pacemaker cells are highly specialized myocardial cells that set the rate of the heart beat
through their ability to rhythmically depolarise and initiate an action potential. They are often
found in the Sinoatrial Node of the heart
8.) Describe the events of the cardiac cycle
*The Cardiac Cycle is composed of:
1.) Atrial Diastole: Semilunar Valves close and Atrioventricular Valves open, causing the chambers to
relax and allow blood to flow into the Right Atrium.
2.) Atrial Systole: Atria contract and blood flows from Atria to Ventricles
3.) Isovolumic Contraction: all valves close and pressure builds up (High pressure prepared to shoot
blood out)
4.) Ventricular Ejection: Ventricles shoot blood out through the Semilunar Valves
5.) Isovolumic Relaxation: Ventricles relax and pressure decreases. Semilunar valves close
6.) Ventricular Filling Stage: blood flows from atria to ventricles

9.) Explain how the heart rate is modified by the autonomic nervous system
*Whenever we are under distress, the Sympathetic Nervous System releases hormones that
accelerate our heart rate. On the other hand, in times of rest, the Parasympathetic Nervous
System inhibits these hormones and decelerates our heart rate.
1.) Compare and contrast the histology of an elastic artery, muscular artery, arteriole,
capillary, venule, and vein. How does the function of each differ
*Elastic arteries are closer to the heart and have increased amounts of elastic fibers in both
Tunica Media and Intima. They are more tolerant of pressure changes, allowing for efficient
maintenance of heart blood pressure (Located in Aorta and Pulmonary Trunk)
→ Large Arteries have BOTH External and Internal Elastic Membranes
*Muscular Arteries are often found in our limb muscles and have more smooth muscle in the
Tunica Media rather than Elastic fibers.
*Arterioles are the smallest branch of arteries and are responsible for controlling blood flow
between arteries and capillaries (mainly slowing down blood flow)
*Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels, lacking Tunica Adventitia and Tunica Media, only
possessing an Endothelial lining (Continuous, Fenestrated, and Sinusoid) and have leaky walls,
they serve as the exchange point of nutrients and gas exchange
---> Continuous (common and exchange water and small molecules)
---> Fenestrated (pores) larger molecules and absorption and filtration of nutrients (small
intestine, kidneys)
---> Sinusoid (least common) leakiest and found in liver and lymph nodes
*Venules are the smallest branch of veins that lack/have thin Tunica Media and send blood back
from the tissues to the heart
*Veins are responsible for taking blood back to the heart and have thicker Tunica Adventitia and
Tunica Intima, they also possess valves (venous valves in lower extremities, non existent in
large valves like the Vena Cavas)
2.) Compare the percentage of blood that is normally contained within the heart, arteries,
and capillaries to the percentage that is normally contained within the veins
*Veins have the highest percentage of blood as they hold 65-70% of the blood volume in our
body.
*Arteries and Capillaries only hold 30-35% of the blood volume in our bodies
3.) Trace the path blood would take as it passes from the Right Atrium of the heart to the
lungs and back to the Right Atrium
1.)The (deoxygenated) Blood first enters our heart through the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava into the
Right Atrium.
2.) The Blood is drawn from the Right Atrium to the Right Ventricle (Ventricular Diastole and Atrial
Systole) through the Tricuspid Valve
3.) The Right Ventricle pumps blood to the lungs through the Pulmonary Valve then Pulmonary Trunk and
finally the Pulmonary Arteries
4.) After Gas exchange in the lungs, the oxygenated blood is returned to the Left Atrium through our
Pulmonary Veins (Left and Right)
5.) The Blood is drawn from the Left Atrium to the Left Ventricle (Ventricular Diastole and Atrial Systole)
through the Bicuspid Valve
6.) The Oxygenated blood is sent through the Aortic Valve and Aorta to be distributed throughout the
body’s systemic arteries
7.) The Body’s systemic veins return the blood to the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava and back into the
Right Atrium
4.) Trace the path blood would take from the heart to various locations throughout the
body and back to the heart

5.) Identify the major arteries of the systemic circuit and the areas and organs supplied
by each vessel
*Check number 4

6.) Identify the major veins of the systemic circuit and the areas and organs drained by
each vessel
*Check number 4
1.) List the main functions of the respiratory system
*Provides area for gas exchange between air and blood
*Moves air to and from surfaces of the lungs
*Protection and maintenance of respiratory surfaces from dehydration and extreme
temperatures
*Protection from pathogens
*Production of sound
*Helps in the regulation of blood volume, blood pressure and bodily pH
2.) Compare and contrast the anatomy and physiology of the Upper Respiratory System
*The Upper Respiratory System is composed of:
>The Nose
>Nasal Cavity
>Paranasal Sinuses
>Pharynx
*The Upper respiratory system provides a passage of air for our lungs and it heats, humidifies,
and filters this air. The Upper Respiratory System also is involved in coughing, swallowing, and
speech
3.) Describe the anatomy of the larynx
*The Larynx has 4 Hyaline Cartilage parts:
>Thyroid Cartilage
>Cricoid Cartilage
>Arytenoid Cartilage
>Corniculate Cartilage
*The Larynx also has 2 Elastic Cartilage parts:
>Epiglottis
>Cuneiform Cartilage
*The Larynx is lined by mucus and is cartilaginous in nature (held together by ligaments or
skeletal muscles). It connects the Pharynx to the Trachea

4.) Describe the anatomy of the Trachea

*The trachea is composed of 15-20 Hyaline C-shaped Tracheal Cartilages
*It is lined by Respiratory Epithelium and submucosa
*The posterior side is held together by the Trachealis Muscle (dilation and constriction)
*Has three separate levels of Bronchi:
>Main/Primary Bronchi (left and right) (Right is steeper and Larger)
>Lobar/Secondary Bronchi
>Segmental/Tertiary Bronchi

5.) Compare and contrast the anatomy of the right and left lungs
*The Right Lung is larger than the Left Lung as the Left Lung’s space is partially occupied by the
Heart. Because of this, the Right Lung features 3 Lobes (Superior, Middle, and Inferior) and 2
fissures (Horizontal and Oblique) whereas the Left Lung only features 2 Lobes (Superior and
Inferior) and 1 fissure (Oblique). However, the Left Lung also has the unique feature of the
Cardiac Notch (which accommodates our Heart)

6.) Trace the path of air from outside environment to the lungs and from the lungs to the
outside environment
7.) Describe the anatomy of the pleural cavities and pleural membranes
*The Left and Right Pleural Cavities are split by the Mediastinum.
*The Lung is lined by the Serous Membranes
>Which are made of 2 layers
>Visceral Pleura: covers outer surface of lungs
>Parietal Pleura: covers the inside lining of thoracic wall, Mediastinum, and Superior Side of
Diaphragm)

8.) List the changes that occur in the respiratory system at birth
*Before Birth:
>Our Pulmonary vessels are collapsed and our Rib cage is compressed (no need for air)
>The lungs hold no air, only a small amount of fluid
*After Birth:
*Air enters our lungs and flushes out fluids
*The Foramen Ovale becomes the Fossa Ovale and the Ductus Arteriosus becomes the
Ligamentum Arteriosus, allowing for the Pulmonary Circuit to start functioning

9.) Discuss the respiratory control centers, how they interact, and the function of the
chemoreceptors and stretch receptors in the control of respiration
*The Respiratory Control centers are found in our Medulla Oblongata and our Pons. The
Apneustic(stimulating) and Pneumotaxic(limiting) centers of our pons work together to control
the rate of breathing. The Medulla sends signals to our muscles that control inspiration,
expiration, and nonrespiratory air movement reflexes.

10.) List the effects of aging on the respiratory system

*As we age:
>Respiratory muscle strength decreases
>Muscle Elasticity decreases
>Chances of respiratory tract infections increases
>Blood Oxygen levels lower
1.) List the major functions of the Lymphatic System
*The Lymphatic System is responsible for:
>Maintaining blood volume and proper chemical composition of interstitial fluid
→Interstitial Fluid: fluid in spaces around cells
>Alternate route for hormones, nutrients(mainly lipids/fats), and waste products
>Fluid balance
>Enhancement of Immune System

2.) Compare and contrast a lymphatic capillary and a vascular capillary

*Vascular Capillaries are often smaller(and more organized in shape) with thicker walls. Unlike
Vascular Capillaries that often have the pressure to keep them open, Lymphatic Capillaries
have anchoring filaments that keep them open. In addition to this, the Lymphatic Capillaries are
larger (bigger lumen), however, have thinner walls.
*Lymphatic Vessels also have valves like veins and are pushed by skeletal muscles

3.) Compare and contrast a Thoracic duct and the Right Lymphatic Duct
*The Right Lymphatic Duct drains the Right Thorax, Upper Limb, Head and Neck
→Right Subclavian Vein and Right Internal Jugular Vein
*The Thoracic Duct drains all lymph from the lower half and upper left side of the
body
→Left Subclavian Vein

4.) Compare and contrast the different classes of Lymphocytes

*T-Cells are Lymphocytes that are developed in the Thymus, they are split into 4 categories:
>Cytotoxic Cells: attack Foreign Cells and Viruses (Cell Mediated Immunity)
>Helper T Cells: stimulate both T and B cells, aiding in antibody production
>Regulatory T cells: moderate(supervise) immune response
>Memory T-Cells: identifiers of past pathogens and holders of pathogen-antibody response
information
*B Cells are Lymphocytes that are mainly developed in the bone marrow and distributed in the
bloodstream. They are split into 2 categories: (Antibody Mediated Immunity)
>Plasma Cells: produce antibodies to address antigens
>Memory B Cells: identifiers of past pathogens and holders of pathogen-antibody response
information
*Natural Killer Cells (NK) continuously survey our lymphatic system and ensure that anything
out of the ordinary is removed (Immune Surveillance)
>Attacks all cells that are out of the ordinary (no discrimination)
5.) Define the term “Lymphatic Nodule” and give 2 examples of where lymphatic nodules
are found within the body
*Lymphatic Nodules are the small, localized collections of lymphoid tissue. They are often found
in our tonsils (Pharyngeal, Palatine, Lingual), spleen, and Peyer’s Patches of the small intestine
6.) Compare and contrast the anatomical structure of a lymph node to that of the thymus
and spleen
*The Lymph Node features:
>Hilum (entrance/exit point of blood vessels)
>Capsule (afferent vessels)
>Branching Trabeculae
>Cortex
>Medulla

*The Thymus features:

>Cortex
>Medulla
>Thymic Corpuscles
>Epithelial Reticular Cells

*The Spleen (The Largest Lymphatic Organ), features:

>Red Pulp
>White Pulp
>Trabeculae
>Capsule

7.) Describe the effects of aging on the lymphatic system and immune surveillance
*As we age, our systems responsible for homeostasis also weaken and degrade. The case is
the same with our Lymphatic System as our T Cells (Cell Mediated Immunity) become less
responsive and smaller in number. Our B cells (Antibody Mediated Immunity) (markers for
antigens/pathogens) become less responsive, thus, leaving us vulnerable to infections and
cancer. Our Natural Killer Cells (Immune Surveillance) also weakens as NK Cell count
diminishes as we age

8.) How are the lymphatic vessels connected to metastatic cancer

*Although our Lymphatic Vessels are responsible for mediating the spread of antigens and
pathogens (mainly eradicating/trapping these at our lymph nodes), our Lymphatic vessels also
serve as easy pathways for metastatic cancer cells to spread. This is particularly why physicians
biopsy the lymph nodes from neighboring regions whenever an individual undergoes cancer.
The spread of cancer throughout the lymph nodes determines the risk of treatment.