Reproductive systems in humans

Male and female reproductive system

The male and female reproductive systems of humans are the only two major
differences between man and women’s bodies.

They are the organs responsible for the procreation.

In males the reproductive organs are exposed at the pubis and genitalia, while in women
they are mostly internal and only the breasts are exposed.

The male reproductive system is designed to produce and introduce the reproductive
cells into the female reproductive system.

The female reproductive system is designed to receive the male sex cells, nourish them
and allow for fertilisation with the female sex cells inside the female body.

The female reproductive system is more complex than the male.

The female reproductive system plays a greater role in the development of the fertilised
egg until a human foetus is fully developed enough for delivery at birth and further
nourished to develop into a fully grown being through breast feeding.

Fig 1.7.6
Male reproductive organs
Fig 1.7.7

Female reproductive organs

Functions of the reproductive system

Ensures the production of offspring and secretes hormones involved in the
development and maintenance of the male and female reproductive organs as well as
many other metabolic and physiological processes such as puberty.

Gonads are the organs (testes and ovaries) in the body that produce the sex cells and
hormones.

In males, testes produce sperm and the hormone testosterone.

The gametes in females are called ovules or egg cells.

They are produced by the ovaries and also produce the hormones oestrogens and
progesterone.

Functions of the organs of the reproductive systems

Testis
The testes are responsible for production of sperm cell (spermatogenesis) and
hormones.

The main function of the hormone testosterone are to:

control growth and development;

maintain the male sex organs;

stimulates bone growth and muscle development;

influences sexual behaviour;

support maturation of sperm and stimulates development of secondary male sex

characteristics;

promote the development of pubic, axillary, and chest hair;

stimulates facial hair growth and temporal hairline recession as well as deepening of
the voice.

The epididymis

The epididymis is an organ that lies above the testes. It is mainly made of tightly coiled
tube where sperm maturation occurs.

The sperm receive fluids rich in fructose to assist with the development.

The Vas Deferens

The Vas Deferens is a long duct connecting the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
above the urinary bladder.

The Vas deferens serves as a passage for sperm from the epididymis to the urethra.

Seminal Vesicles

The seminal vesicles are two glands located above the urinary bladder.

They unite with the Vas deferens to form the ejaculatory duct.

They produce an alkaline fluid rich in fructose to nourish the sperm and neutralize the
acid created by the sperm's waste products.
Ejaculatory Duct

The ejaculatory duct also lies above the urinary bladder and is formed by the union of
the duct from the seminal vesicle and the Vas deferens.

It leads into the urethra its function is to eject sperm into the urethra just before
ejaculation.

Prostate Gland

The prostate gland is a single gland below the urinary bladder and surrounding the
urethra.

It is a common cancer site for adult males.

The urethra

It is located at the base of the bladder and runs through the penis up to the tip of the
penis.

The urethra serves as the passageway for urine or spermatozoa to the external
environment, but not at the same time.

Cowper's Glands

These glands are located below the prostate gland on either side of the urethra.

They secrete an alkaline substance to neutralize the acidic environment of the urethra.

And also to provide lubrication for sexual intercourse.

Scrotum

The scrotum is a sac of the abdomen consisting of loose skin, skeletal muscle, and
superficial tissue.

It encloses and protects the testes and maintains a constant temperature about 2 to 3
degrees below normal body temperature for optimal sperm production.

Penis

The penis is a cylindrical organ which surrounds the urethra.

When sexual stimulation occurs after maturity, the arteries supplies the penis with large
quantities of blood causing an erection.
In this state, it can be used to introduce the sperm into the female vagina during
intercourse.

The female reproductive system

Ovaries

The ovaries are the paired female gonads located in the abdomen.

The ovaries are responsible for producing eggs and hormones.

Oviduct/ fallopian tube

The Fallopian tubes or oviducts have finger like projections to bring ova into the oviduct
from the ovaries.

The function of the oviduct include the movement of ovules from the ovary into the
uterus.

It is also the site for fertilisation when the ova meets and fuses with the sperm.

Uterus

The uterus is a muscular organ located in the abdomen.

Its major function is to accommodate fertilised ova and support it until delivery.

It is the site of implantation of the embryo and protects the foetus during pregnancy or
gestation.

Cervix

The cervix is a narrow, thick muscular area that opens into the vagina.

Some cancers commonly grow on the cervix.

The cervix restricts entry of any substance into the uterus.

It has three layers to protect the uterus and its contents even during pregnancy.

Endometrium

It is the innermost layer of the uterus which is shed during menstruation.

Vagina

The vagina is a fibrous elastic tube of muscular tissue that is lined with mucous
membrane.

It acts as the passage for spermatozoa and the menstrual flow.

It also acts as the receptacle for the penis during intercourse and also as the lower birth
canal during delivery.

It secretes a mucous like fluid that acts as lubrication during sexual intercourse.

Mammary Glands

The mammary glands are made of adipose tissue that surrounds lobules which contain
milk secreting glandular cells.

The breasts have an areolar which is the dark area around the nipple.

The nipple allows the infant to suckle and stimulate milk production reflexes.

Structure and function of the sex cells (gametes)

There are two types of sex cells in humans, the sperm and the ovum.

These sex cells contain the required chromosomes to form a human offspring.

The cells are each produced with the genetic information to complete their purpose.

Males produce millions of sperm per single ejaculation while females are capable of
producing just one sex cell or ova per month.

Both the sperm and ovum are haploid cells (meaning that they have half the number of
chromosomes- 23chromosomes each)

The sperm and ovum are highly specialised and adapted for fertilisation to form a
diploid zygote (complete new cell with 46 chromosomes)

The Sperm

Fig 1.7.8
The sperm

The sperm is made up of three parts, the head, the mid piece and the tail.

The head portion has a nucleus consisting of chromosomes responsible for

transmitting genetic characteristics of an individual.

The head is capped with an acrosome that contains enzymes for breaking into the
cytoplasm of the ovum during fertilisation.

It is connected to the mid piece.

The mid piece of the sperm is mainly mitochondria.

It contains the material for providing the sperm with energy to survive outside the male
body until it manages to fuse with the ova.

The mid piece is attached to the flagellum (tail) responsible for the movement of the
sperm.

The tail or flagellum of the sperm is powered by the mitochondria in the mid piece to
propel the sperm inside the vagina and uterus in search of the ova.
Once fertilisation occurs, only the nucleus of the sperm enters the ovum and the rest of
the sperm is left outside,

It may be digested by enzymes on the surface of the ova to provide nourishment before
implantation.

The ovum

Fig 1.7.9

The ovum

The ovum has a central nucleus that contains the genetic material.

The ovum can only fuse with one sperm cell at a time before it locks out all the other
sperm cells during fertilization.

The fusion of the two cells determines the inherited characteristics of the child.

Around the nucleus of the ova there is a cell plasma (jelly) that contains nutritional
elements essential to the developing egg cell.
However if egg cells are not fertilized within 24 hours they begin to degenerate.

Table 1.7.4: Comparing the male and female gametes

Feature Sperm Egg

Size Relatively large: much larger than

Relatively small
sperm cell
Mobility Non-mobile: moved by cilia and
Has tail for swimming
peristalsis in the oviduct
Food store Has very little energy store to support Has a large food store in
respiration cytoplasm to support the zygote
Numbers Millions are released during a single Only a single egg is produced per
produced ejaculation to increase chances of menstrual cycle
fertilisation

Menstrual cycle
This is the cycle of producing and releasing mature ova.

From puberty (about 12years of age), females begin to release an ovum each month
(every 28 days) in anticipation of fertilisation until they reach menopause (about 50
years of age).

Every 28 days, one of the ovaries releases a mature ovum, a process called ovulation.

When this process occurs, the lining of the uterus walls thicken and prepare for
implantation in the event of fertilisation.

The released ovum can survive for 24 hours inside the female body.

If the egg is not fertilised, the lining disintegrates (breaks down).

Both the lining and the unfertilised (dead) ovum are shed through the vagina over a
period of about three to five days.

This gradual break down of the uterus lining is called menstruation.

The menstrual flow comes out in form of blood and mucus.

The hormones oestrogen and progesterone regulate the changes within the
endometrium.
Oestrogen helps to build up the endometrium after menstruation and progesterone
maintains the lining of the uterus in case fertilisation occurs.

Chances of fertilisation are higher a few days before or after ovulation.

This is the fertile period.

The infertile or safe period is usually the premenstrual and the menstrual phases.

Fig 1.7.10

The Human menstrual cycle (left) + fertility phases (right)

Copulation (sexual intercourse)

It is during this process that sperms are deposited from the penis into the vagina.

An increase in blood flow to the male penis from sexual stimulation causes the penis to
become hard and erect.

The penis can then be inserted into the vagina.

During copulation, the walls of the vagina secrete lubricating fluids.

Eventually, sexual intercourse causes a reflex action which results in the release of
sperm.

The sperm which are stored in the epididymis are then moved along the sperm ducts
past the seminal vesicles and prostate gland where fluid is added to make semen.

Semen is squeezed out of the urethra and deposited just below the cervix.

The release of semen through peristaltic movements is called ejaculation.

The released sperm (ejaculate) begins to swim towards the ovum which releases
chemicals that guide sperm towards it.

The sperm swim through the cervix and along the lining of the uterus into the oviducts
where fertilisation will occur with the ovum.

The sperm is estimated to live in the female reproductive system for 2-3 days.

Fertilisation
It is the fusion of the nuclei of a sperm and the nuclei of an ovum forming a zygote.

It occurs in the oviduct.

The sperm cell penetrates the membrane surrounding the ovum by releasing enzymes.

Once fertilisation occurs, the ovum membrane changes to form a barrier against entry
of other sperm cells to avoid multiple fertilisation of the ovum.

After the egg is fertilized it undergoes a series of cell divisions.

If at an early stage of its development the fertilized egg splits into two parts that
continue to grow, identical twins will result; however incomplete division would result in
Siamese twins.

Fraternal twins result when two separate eggs are released and independently fertilized.

The newly formed zygote then begins to divide by mitosis to become a ball of cells
called the embryo.

The developing embryo obtains nutrients from the cytoplasm of the ovum before
implantation.

It takes a few days for muscular peristaltic contractions of the oviduct and beating cilia
in the oviduct move the embryo down the oviduct to the uterus for implantation.

Fig 1.7.11

Fertilisation in the oviduct

Fig 1.7.12
Implantation of the embryo

Implantation and the placenta

Implantation is when the embryo becomes attached or embedded to the wall of uterus.

The embryo then grows finger-like projections called villi into the uterus wall to obtain
food and oxygen.

The villi develop into a disc-shaped structure called the placenta.

After, a few weeks the embryo grows into a foetus which is attached to the placenta by
the umbilical cord.

The umbilical cord contains two types of vessels umbilical artery which carries
deoxygenated blood with metabolic waste from the foetus to the placenta and umbilical
vein which transports oxygenated blood and necessary nutrients (glucose, amino acids,
water and vitamins) to the foetus.

The placenta allows for many substances to be exchanged by diffusion between

mother’s blood and the foetus’ blood.

The functions of the placenta include:

Barrier (protection):

Prevents entry of toxins and pathogens from mother.

However, some pathogens are known to cross the placenta like the viruses Rubella
(causes measles) and HIV (causes AIDS).

Substances such as nicotine and carbon monoxide from tobacco smoke are toxic and
can cross the placenta and can result in premature or underweight babies during
pregnancy.

Some drugs including alcohol can pass through the placenta to the foetus and may
cause mental retardation or birth defects.

Allows entry of antibodies from mother (passive immunity).

Separates mother’s blood from the foetus’ blood.

This protects the embryo from the mother’s higher blood pressure.

It also prevents exchange of red blood cells which can result in the cells clumping
together (agglutination).

Nutrient supply

Delivers nutrients such as dissolved glucose, amino acids, fats, mineral ions and
vitamins for growth of foetus.

Gas exchange

Carries oxygen from the mother to the foetus and removes carbon dioxide from foetus
to the mother’s blood.

Excretion

Removes metabolic wastes from foetus including urea and carbon dioxide.

Effects of smoking and drinking beer during pregnancy.

Nearly everything that enters the mother during pregnancy is shared with the foetus.

This means any drugs or alcohol taken during pregnancy can also affect the foetus.

The foetus is more sensitive to the drugs and alcohol.

This is because the foetus cannot eliminate drugs or alcohol as effectively as the
mother.

Chemicals in drugs can build up to extreme levels in the foetus’s system and this can
cause permanent damage.

Smoking during pregnancy can result in the following:

Miscarriage

Stillbirth

Small size

Low birth weight

Premature birth with the risk of lung, eye and learning problems.

Birth defects which include seizure, stroke and intellectual disabilities.

Drug dependence in the baby which might also result in withdrawal symptoms after
delivery.

Drugs such as Cocaine and Marijuana are known to increase the risk of stillbirth and
miscarriages.

In addition, a foetus cannot alcohol the same way an adult can.

This means alcohol will become more concentrated in the system of the foetus.

This can prevent sufficient amounts of nutrients and oxygen from reaching their vital
organs.

Alcohol is known to cause abnormal foetal development and a condition known as

foetal development syndrome.

Foetal development syndrome is characterised by mental and physical defects.

Some of the mental and physical defects include:

A small head

Dental malformation

Vision impairment
Heart problems

Below average height and weight.

Methods of contraception
Contraception refers to the deliberate use of methods or techniques to delay or prevent
pregnancy.

This is done by preventing the sperm and egg from coming together.

Abstinence
This is avoidance of sexual intercourse.

This method is 100% safe and also protects against sexually transmitted infections.

Artificial hormones/Chemical barriers

This is the use of pills or injection which suppresses the production of hormones that cause
ovulation.

The method prevents ovulation.

They are almost 100% effective if used consistently.

However they may be side effects such as headache and hypertension.

Another disadvantage is remembering to take them regularly without fail.

Mechanical barriers
These block sperms from entering the cervix.

Mechanical devices used include the diaphragm, intrauterine devices (IUD) and the male and
female condom.

Unlike any other contraception methods, barrier methods are used only when having sexual
intercourse.
Condoms Effectiven Some
ess can be people are
98% if allergic to
A rubber sheath placed over an erect penis or inside the vagina before
used rubber
intercourse.
correctly. condoms.

Effective
in
prevention
of HIV
transmissi
on and
STI’s.

Pills Almost May have

100% side
effective if effects
consistent such as
ly used. vomiting,
headache
and
hypertensi
on.
Pills prevent pregnancy by suppressing the production of hormones that
cause ovulation.
Intrauterine devices(IUDs) Long May cause
lasting uterine
and cheap contractio
ns when
95-99% they are
effective expelled.

Are Cramping,
independe bleeding
nt of and pain
sexual may be
intercours experience
e. d.

Require
checking
after
menstruati
on.
Diaphragm 98% Preplannin
effective g is
required
It does not
interfere The device
with the may slip
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are
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Method Advantages Disadvantages

Chemical barriers
They contain a variety of substances like spermicides which kill the sperm or prevent it from
moving by altering the pH in the vagina.

Devices include pills and injections.

The foams, creams, tablets, jelly or suppositories are inserted deep into the vagina and they
melt because of the body heat and transform into a viscous mass which acts as a barrier for the
sperm cells.

Advantages
They are cheap

They are simple to use

Can be used as a temporary measure.

Some offer protection against STI’s.

Disadvantages
Needs planning

May result in some side effects such as a burning sensation.

They are less effective.

Most do not offer protection against STI’s.

Natural methods
Include the ‘safe’ period and withdrawal methods.

Withdrawal method
It is whereby the male withdraws his penis from the vagina immediately before ejaculation
preventing semen from entering the vagina.

Advantages
Available at no cost

No devices or chemicals required

Readily available

Disadvantages
It is very unreliable as some sperm may already be outside the penis.

Timing makes the action difficult and frustrating.

The safe period method

It is dependent on the time of ovulation in the menstrual cycle.

The method is based on the fact that a woman is not fertile on all days of her menstrual cycle.

There are certain days in which chances of pregnancy are very high while in others they are
much lower.
The fertile period is from the 8th day of the menstrual cycle to the 20th day.

The safe days are five days of the menstrual bleeding, three days from the end of bleeding and
eight days from the beginning of the next cycle.

It is an unreliable method because it depends on time of ovulation in the menstrual cycle.

Surgical sterilization
A permanent method of sterilization.

Usually used by people who no longer want to have children

It is 100% effective.

In females, the fallopian tubes are closed or blocked, preventing ova from meeting with the
sperm (tubal ligation).

Tubal ligation

The womb may be surgically removed (hysterectomy)

In males the sperm ducts are tied and cut preventing sperms from leaving the testes
(vasectomy).

Vasectomy