IGCSE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT: NATURAL RESOURCES - ROCKS AND
MINERALS
SECTION 1: THE ROCK CYCLE AND ROCK TYPES
Q1: What are the three main types of rocks, and how are they formed?
A1: The three main types of rocks are:
● Igneous Rocks: Formed from the cooling and solidification of molten rock (magma or
lava). If magma cools slowly underground, it forms intrusive igneous rocks with large
crystals (e.g., granite). If lava cools quickly on the Earth's surface, it forms extrusive
igneous rocks with small crystals (e.g., basalt).
● Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from the deposition, compaction, and cementation of
sediments (weathered rock fragments, organic matter). Sediments are transported by wind
or water, then compacted by the weight of overlying layers, and cemented by minerals
dissolved in water. Examples include sandstone, shale, and limestone. Fossils are typically
found in sedimentary rocks.
● Metamorphic Rocks: Formed when existing igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic
rocks are subjected to intense heat and pressure, causing changes in their mineral
composition and texture. This can occur due to burial deep within the Earth's crust or
contact with hot magma. Examples include marble (from limestone) and slate (from shale).
Q2: Describe the rock cycle, including the processes involved.
A2: The rock cycle is a continuous process that describes the formation, breakdown, and
reformation of rocks. The key processes include:
1. Weathering and Erosion: Existing rocks are broken down into smaller pieces (sediments)
by physical, chemical, or biological processes. Erosion then transports these sediments.
2. Transportation: Sediments are moved by wind, water, or ice to new locations.
3. Deposition: Sediments settle in layers, often in low-lying areas or water bodies.
4. Compaction & Cementation: Over time, layers of sediments are pressed together by the
weight of overlying material (compaction) and mineral solutions fill the spaces between
particles, binding them together (cementation), forming sedimentary rocks.
5. Burial & Increased Heat/Pressure: Sedimentary rocks can be buried deep within the
Earth's crust, where increased heat and pressure can transform them into metamorphic
rocks.
6. Melting: If heat and pressure are extreme enough, metamorphic rocks can melt to form
magma.
7. Cooling & Crystallisation: Magma cools and solidifies (crystallises) to form igneous
rocks.
8. Uplift: Rocks formed deep underground can be uplifted to the Earth's surface, where they
are exposed to weathering and erosion, continuing the cycle.
(Refer to Figure 2.12: The rock cycle)
Q3: How do the characteristics of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks differ?
A3:
Characteristic Igneous Rock Sedimentary Rock Metamorphic Rock
Origin Cools from magma/lava Weathered rock Existing rock altered by
fragments heat/pressure
Mineral crystals Sometimes present, size Absent May be present
depends on cooling
Fossils No fossils present Fossils may be present No fossils present
Texture Crystalline Clastic (fragments) or Crystalline
(interlocking crystals) non-clastic (chemical) (interlocking crystals),
foliated
Hardness Generally hard Variable, often softer Generally hard
(Refer to Table 2.1: Characteristics of the different rock types)
Q4: Explain the terms 'permeability' and 'impermeability' in relation to rocks.
A4:
● Permeability: The ability of water (or other liquids/gases) to pass through the pore spaces
of a rock and soil. Permeable rocks have interconnected pores that allow water to flow
through them easily (e.g., sandstone, limestone).
● Impermeability: The inability of water (or other liquids/gases) to pass through a rock.
Impermeable rocks have very few or no pore spaces, or the pores are not connected (e.g.,
shale, slate, granite).
SECTION 2: EXTRACTION OF ROCKS, ORES AND MINERALS
Q5: Why are rocks and minerals important resources for humans?
A5: Rocks and minerals are essential natural resources due to their wide range of uses in
everyday life and industries:
● Energy: Fossil fuels like coal (a sedimentary rock) provide energy.
● Building Materials: Rocks like granite, marble, and sandstone are used for construction.
● Metals: Ores contain metals like iron, copper, and aluminum, which are vital for
manufacturing computers, mobile phones, cars, wires, and many other products.
● Agriculture: Some minerals are used as fertilisers.
● Jewellery: Precious minerals like diamonds and gold are used for ornaments. Overall, they
are fundamental to the global economy and human development.
●
Q6: Describe the two main methods of extracting rocks, ores, and minerals.
A6: The two main methods are:
1. Surface Extraction (Open-pit mining): This involves removing the topsoil and
overburden (material covering the ore body) to expose the mineral deposit near the
surface. It is less expensive than sub-surface mining and allows for larger quantities of
material to be extracted. Examples include large open-pit mines for nickel (Figure 2.16)
and gold (Figure 2.17). Strip mining is a type of surface extraction where overburden is
removed in strips to access seams of coal (Figure 2.18).
2. Sub-surface Extraction (Deep mining/Underground mining): This method is used
when mineral deposits are located deep underground, making surface extraction
uneconomical or impossible. It involves digging tunnels and shafts to access the ore.
○ Adit mining: Involves digging horizontal tunnels directly into a seam in the side of
a hill or mountain.
○ Shaft mining: More expensive and complex, involving vertical shafts dug deep into
the ground, with horizontal tunnels leading to the ore. This method is used for
deeper deposits and requires significant infrastructure for ventilation, drainage, and
material transport. (Figure 2.19)
Q7: What factors influence the decision to extract rocks, ores, and minerals from a particular
location?
A7: Several factors determine the economic viability and feasibility of mineral extraction:
● Exploration/Geology: Extensive exploration is needed to find suitable deposits.
Geologists use drones for surveying (Figure 2.21) and examine rock samples (Figure 2.22)
to determine the type, quantity, and grade of minerals present. Minerals are often
concentrated in layers within the rock (Figure 2.23).
● Quantity and Quality of Deposit (Ore Grade): A large, high-grade deposit (high yield of
gold in g/tonne of rock - Table 2.2) is more profitable. Lower-grade ores may still be
extracted if the quantity is very large.
● Accessibility and Terrain: The location's accessibility is crucial. Remote or mountainous
areas (Figure 2.24) with poor infrastructure (no roads) make extraction difficult and
expensive. Deep underground deposits require more complex and costly sub-surface
mining.
● Climate and Weather: Extreme weather conditions (e.g., very hot or cold climates,
permafrost in Arctic regions - Figure 2.26) can make extraction difficult, hazardous, and
costly due to challenges for workers and machinery.
● Environmental Impact: Mining operations have significant environmental consequences.
Companies must consider the impact on air (dust, pollution), water (acid mine drainage),
land (habitat destruction, spoil heaps), and biodiversity. Strict environmental regulations
and the cost of remediation must be factored in. An Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) is often required.
● Cost and Profit: The overall cost of extraction (labour, machinery, transport, processing)
must be less than the expected revenue from selling the minerals for the operation to be
profitable. Prices of minerals fluctuate based on supply and demand.
● Political Stability and Government Policies: A stable political environment and clear
government regulations (e.g., permits, taxes) are essential for long-term investment in
mining.
● Biological Extraction Techniques: For some low-grade ores, biological methods like
phytomining and bioleaching are being developed as alternatives or complements to
traditional extraction.
○ Phytomining: Plants absorb metals from the soil and concentrate them in their
tissues. The plants are then harvested and burned to produce metal-rich ash. (Figure
2.20)
○ Bioleaching: Microorganisms are used to break down rocks and release metals from
ores.
KEY TERMS DEFINED:
● Natural resources: Materials from the environment that are used by humans.
● Surface extraction: Extraction from the Earth's surface.
● Overburden: The material lying above a mineral deposit, which needs to be removed to
access the ore.
● Bench: A layer cut into a mine to allow easy excavation.
● Seam: A layer of desired material found in rock.
● Deep mining: The process of extracting minerals from buried deposits.
● Shaft mining: A method used to access minerals/ore from the top down.
● Deposition: The laying down of sediment transported by wind or water.
● Sedimentation: The accumulation of sediments, which then form sedimentary rock.
● Compaction: The pressing together of particles over time, reducing the spaces between
them.
● Cementation: The hardening and joining together of compacted particles.
● Tectonic plate: A piece of lithosphere that moves slowly on the asthenosphere.
● Crystallisation: The process of crystals forming caused by cooling.
● Weathering: The breaking down of rocks.
● Erosion: The movement of rock and soil fragments to different locations.
● Transportation: The process by which rock particles are moved to another location.
● Metamorphic rock: A rock formed from existing rocks by a combination of heat and
pressure.
● Rock cycle: A representation of the changes between the three rock types and the
processes causing them.
● Permeability: The ability of water to pass through the pore spaces of rock and soil.
● Impermeable: Describing rock and soil that water (or other liquids or gases) cannot pass
through.
● Phytomining: Biological extraction of metals from the ground using plants.
● Bioleaching: The extraction of materials from the ground using microorganisms.
● Ion: A positively charged particle, usually found as part of a compound.
