Module1

Power Semiconductor
Devices
Lecture1
Power Electronics
Introduction
This lesson provides the reader the following:

(i) Create an awareness of the general nature of Power electronic equipment;

(ii) Brief idea about topics of study involved,
(iii) The key features of the principal Power Electronic Devices;
(iv) An idea about which device to choose for a particular application.
(v) A few issues like base drive and protection of PE devices and equipment common to
most varieties.

Power Electronics is the art of converting electrical energy from one form to another in an efficient,
clean, compact, and robust manner for convenient utilisation.

A passenger lift in a modern building equipped with a Variable-Voltage-Variable-Speed

induction-machine drive offers a comfortable ride and stops exactly at the floor level. Behind the
scene it consumes less power with reduced stresses on the motor and corruption of the utility
mains.

Fig. 1.1 The block diagram of a typical Power Electronic converter

Power Electronics involves the study of

 Power semiconductor devices - their physics, characteristics, drive requirements and their
protection for optimum utilisation of their capacities,
 Power converter topologies involving them,
 Control strategies of the converters,
 Digital, analogue and microelectronics involved,
 Capacitive and magnetic energy storage elements,
 Rotating and static electrical devices,
 Quality of waveforms generated,
 Electro Magnetic and Radio Frequency Interference,
 Thermal Management
The typical converter in Fig. 1.1 illustrates the multidisciplinary nature of this subject.

How is Power electronics distinct from linear electronics?

It is not primarily in their power handling capacities.
While power management IC's in mobile sets working on Power Electronic principles are
meant to handle only a few milliwatts, large linear audio amplifiers are rated at a few thousand
watts.
The utilisation of the Bipolar junction transistor, Fig. 1.2 in the two types of amplifiers best
symbolises the difference. In Power Electronics all devices are operated in the switching mode -
either 'FULLY-ON' or 'FULLY-OFF' states. The linear amplifier concentrates on fidelity in
signal amplification, requiring transistors to operate strictly in the linear (active) zone, Fig 1.3.
Saturation and cutoff zones in the VCE - IC plane are avoided. In a Power electronic switching
amplifier, only those areas in the VCE - IC plane which have been skirted above, are suitable. On-
state dissipation is minimum if the device is in saturation (or quasi-saturation for optimising
other losses). In the off-state also, losses are minimum if the BJT is reverse biased. A BJT switch
will try to traverse the active zone as fast as possible to minimise switching losses.

Fig. 1.2 Typical Bipolar transistor based (a) linear (common emitter) (voltage)
amplifier stage and (b) switching (power) amplifier
Fig 1.3 Operating zones for operating a Bipolar Junction Transistor as a linear and a
switching amplifier

Linear operation Switching operation

Active zone selected: Active zone avoided:
Good linearity between input/output High losses, encountered only during
transients
Saturation & cut-off zones avoided: poor Saturation & cut-off (negative bias) zones
linearity selected: low losses
Transistor biased to operate around No concept of quiescent point
quiescent point
Common emitter, Common collector, Transistor driven directly at base - emitter
common base modes and load either on collector or emitter
Output transistor barely protected Switching-Aid-Network (SAN) and other
protection to main transistor

Utilisation of transistor rating of secondary Utilisation of transistor rating optimised

importance
An example illustrating the linear and switching solutions to a power supply specification will
emphasise the difference.

Spec: Input: 230 V, 50 Hz, Output: 12 V regulated DC, 20 W

Ferrite core HF transfr:

Light, efficient
Series regulator -
high losses

230 V
230 V

Line freq transformer: (a) (b)

heavy, lossy High-freq Duty-ratio
(ON/OFF) control
- low losses
Fig. 1.4 (a) A Linear regulator and (b) a switching regulator solution of the specification above
The linear solution, Fig. 1.4 (a), to this quite common specification would first step down the
supply voltage to 12-0-12 V through a power frequency transformer. The output would be rectified
using Power frequency diodes, electrolytic capacitor filter and then series regulated using a chip
or a audio power transistor. The tantalum capacitor filter would follow. The balance of the voltage
between the output of the rectifier and the output drops across the regulator device which also
carries the full load current. The power loss is therefore considerable. Also, the step- down iron-
core transformer is both heavy, and lossy. However, only twice-line-frequency ripplesappear at
the output and material cost and technical know-how required is low.
In the switching solution Fig. 1.4 (b) using a MOSFET driven flyback converter, first the line
voltage is rectified and then isolated, stepped-down and regulated. A ferrite-core high-frequency
(HF) transformer is used. Losses are negligible compared to the first solution and the converter is
extremely light. However significant high frequency (related to the switching frequency) noise
appear at the output which can only be minimised through the use of costly 'grass' capacitors.

Power Semiconductor device - history

Power electronics and converters utilizing them made a head start when the first device the
Silicon Controlled Rectifier was proposed by Bell Labs and commercially produced by General
Electric in the earlier fifties. The Mercury Arc Rectifiers were well in use by that time and the
robust and compact SCR first started replacing it in the rectifiers and cycloconverters. The
necessity arose of extending the application of the SCR beyond the line-commutated mode of
action, which called for external measures to circumvent its turn-off incapability via its control
terminals. Various turn-off schemes were proposed and their classification was suggested but it
became increasingly obvious that a device with turn-off capability was desirable, which would
permit it a wider application. The turn-off networks and aids were impractical at higher powers.
The Bipolar transistor, which had by the sixties been developed to handle a few tens of amperes
and block a few hundred volts, arrived as the first competitor to the SCR. It is superior to the SCR
in its turn-off capability, which could be exercised via its control terminals. This permitted the
replacement of the SCR in all forced-commutated inverters and choppers. However, the gain
(power) of the SCR is a few decades superior to that of the Bipolar transistor
and the high base currents required to switch the Bipolar spawned the Darlington. Three or more
stage Darlingtons are available as a single chip complete with accessories for its convenient
drive. Higher operating frequencies were obtainable with a discrete Bipolars compared to the 'fast'
inverter-grade SCRs permitting reduction of filter components. But the Darlington's operating
frequency had to be reduced to permit a sequential turn-off of the drivers and the main transistor.
Further, the incapability of the Bipolar to block reverse voltages restricted its use.

The Power MOSFET burst into the scene commercially near the end seventies. This device
also represents the first successful marriage between modern integrated circuit and discrete
power semiconductor manufacturing technologies. Its voltage drive capability – giving it again a
higher gain, the ease of its paralleling and most importantly the much higher operating frequencies
reaching upto a few MHz saw it replacing the Bipolar also at the sub-10 KW range mainly for
SMPS type of applications. Extension of VLSI manufacturing facilities for the MOSFET reduced
its price vis-à-vis the Bipolar also. However, being a majority carrier device its on-state voltage
is dictated by the RDS(ON) of the device, which in turn is proportional to about VDSS2.3 rating of the
MOSFET. Consequently, high-voltage MOSFETS are not commercially viable.
 Improvements were being tried out on the SCR regarding its turn-off capability mostly by
reducing the turn-on gain. Different versions of the Gate-turn-off device, the Gate turn-off
Thyristor (GTO), were proposed by various manufacturers - each advocating their own symbol for
the device. The requirement for an extremely high turn-off control current via the gate and the
comparatively higher cost of the device restricted its application only to inverters rated above a few
hundred KVA.

The lookout for a more efficient, cheap, fast and robust turn-off-able device proceeded in
different directions with MOS drives for both the basic thysistor and the Bipolar. The Insulated
Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) – basically a MOSFET driven Bipolar from its terminal
characteristics has been a successful proposition with devices being made available at about 4
KV and 4 KA. Its switching frequency of about 25 KHz and ease of connection and drive sawit
totally removing the Bipolar from practically all applications. Industrially, only the MOSFET has
been able to continue in the sub – 10 KVA range primarily because of its high switching frequency.
The IGBT has also pushed up the GTO to applications above 2-5 MVA.

Subsequent developments in converter topologies – especially the three-level inverter

permitted use of the IGBT in converters of 5 MVA range. However at ratings above that the GTO
(6KV/6KA device of Mitsubishi) based converters had some space. Only SCR based converters
are possible at the highest range where line-commutated or load-commutated converters were the
only solution. The surge current, the peak repetition voltage and I2t ratings are applicable only to
the thyristors making them more robust, specially thermally, than the transistors of all varieties.

1200V Version 3 ASIPM

Presently there are few hybrid devices and Intelligent Power Modules (IPM) are marketed by some
manufacturers. The IPMs have already gathered wide acceptance. The 4500 V, 1200 A
IEGT (injection-enhanced gate transistor) of Toshiba or the 6000 V, 3500 A IGCT (Integrated
Gate Commutated Thyristors) of ABB which are promising at the higher power ranges. However
these new devices must prove themselves before they are accepted by the industry at large.

Silicon carbide is a wide band gap semiconductor with an energy band gap wider than about
2 eV that possesses extremely high thermal, chemical, and mechanical stability. Silicon carbide
is the only wide band gap semiconductor among gallium nitride (GaN, E G = 3.4 eV), aluminum
nitride (AlN, EG = 6.2 eV), and silicon carbide that possesses a high-quality native oxide suitable
for use as an MOS insulator in electronic devices The breakdown field in SiC is about 8 times
higher than in silicon. This is important for high-voltage power switching transistors. For example,
a device of a given size in SiC will have a blocking voltage 8 times higher than the same device in
silicon. More importantly, the on-resistance of the SiC device will be about two decades lower
than the silicon device. Consequently, the efficiency of the power converter is higher. In addition,
SiC-based semiconductor switches can operate at high temperatures (~600 C) without much
change in their electrical properties. Thus the converter has a higher reliability. Reduced losses
and allowable higher operating temperatures result in smaller heatsink size. Moreover, the high
frequency operating capability of SiC converters lowers the filtering requirement and the filter
size. As a result, they are compact, light, reliable, and efficient and have a high power density.
These qualities satisfy the requirements of power converters for most applications and they are
expected to be the devices of the future.

Ratings have been progressively increasing for all devices while the newer devices offer
substantially better performance. With the SCR and the pin-diodes, so called because of the
sandwiched intrinsic ‘i’-layer between the ‘p’ and ‘n’ layers, having mostly line-commutated
converter applications, emphasis was mostly on their static characteristics - forward and reverse
voltage blocking, current carrying and over-current ratings, on-state forward voltage etc and also
on issues like paralleling and series operation of the devices. As the operating speeds of the devices
increased, the dynamic (switching) characteristics of the devices assumed greater importance as
most of the dissipation was during these transients. Attention turned to thedevelopment of efficient
drive networks and protection techniques which were found to enhance the performance of the
devices and their peak power handling capacities. Issues related toparalleling were resolved
by the system designer within the device itself like in MOSFETS,while the converter topology
was required to take care of their series operation as in multi-level converters.

The range of power devices thus developed over the last few decades can be represented as a
tree, Fig. 1.5, on the basis of their controllability and other dominant features.
 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR
DEVICES

UNCONTROLLED CONTROLLED

RECTIFIERS ACCESSORIES REGENERATIVE NON-REGENERATIVE INTEGRATED

POWER SILICON SCR BJT IGCT

DIAC TRIAC MOSFET PIC
DIODES
Zenner GTO IGBT INTELLIGENT
FREDS
MOV POWER MODULES

Fig. 1.5 Power semiconductor device variety

Power Diodes

t0 t1 t2 SNAPPY

SOFT
Q1 Q2
 to

IRM

VRM
Fig. 1.6 Typical turn-off dynamics of a soft and a 'snappy' diode'

Silicon Power diodes are the successors of Selenium rectifiers having significantly improved
forward characteristics and voltage ratings. They are classified mainly by their turn-off (dynamic)
characteristics Fig. 1.6. The minority carriers in the diodes require finite time - trr (reverse recovery
time) to recombine with opposite charges and neutralise. Large values of Qrr (=Q1 + Q2) - the
charge to be dissipated as a negative current when the and diode turns off and trr(= t2 - t0) - the
time it takes to regain its blocking features, impose strong current stresses on the controlled device
in series. Also a 'snappy' type of recovery of the diode effects high di/dt voltages on all associated
power device in the converter because of load or stray inductances present in the network. There
are broadly three types of diodes used in Power electronic applications:

Line-frequency diodes: These PIN diodes with general-purpose rectifier type applications, are
available at the highest voltage (~5kV) and current ratings (~5kA) and have excellent over- current
(surge rating about six times average current rating) and surge-voltage withstand capability. They
have relatively large Qrr and trr specifications.
Fast recovery diodes: Fast recovery diffused diodes and fast recovery epitaxial diodes, FRED's,
have significantly lower Qrr and trr (~ 1.0 sec). They are available at high powers and are
mainly used in association with fast controlled-devices as free-wheeling or DC-DC choppers and
rectifier applications. Fast recovery diodes also find application in induction heating, UPS and
traction.

Schottky rectifiers: These are the fastest rectifiers being majority carrier devices without any Qrr..
However, they are available with voltage ratings up to a hundred volts only though current ratings
may be high. Their conduction voltages specifications are excellent (~0.2V). The freedom from
minority carrier recovery permits reduced snubber requirements. Schottky diodes face no
competition in low voltage SPMS applications and in instrumentation.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier is the most popular of the thyristor family of four layer
regenerative devices. It is normally turned on by the application of a gate pulse when a forward
bias voltage is present at the main terminals. However, being regenerative or 'latching', it cannot
be turned off via the gate terminals specially at the extremely high amplification factor of the gate.
There are two main types of SCR's.

Converter grade or Phase Control thyristors These devices are the work horses of the Power
Electronics. They are turned off by natural (line) commutation and are reverse biased at least for a
few milliseconds subsequent to a conduction period. No fast switching feature is desired of these
devices. They are available at voltage ratings in excess of 5 KV starting from about 50 V and
current ratings of about 5 KA. The largest converters for HVDC transmission arebuilt with series-
parallel combination of these devices. Conduction voltages are device voltage rating dependent
and range between 1.5 V (600V) to about 3.0 V (+5 KV). These devices are unsuitable for any
'forced-commutated' circuit requiring unwieldy large commutation components.

The dynamic di/dt and dv/dt capabilities of the SCR have vastly improved over the years
borrowing emitter shorting and other techniques adopted for the faster variety. The requirement
for hard gate drives and di/dt limting inductors have been eliminated in the process.

Inverter grade thyristors: Turn-off times of these thyristors range from about 5 to 50 secs
when hard switched. They are thus called fast or 'inverter grade' SCR's. The SCR's are mainly used
in circuits that are operated on DC supplies and no alternating voltage is available to turn them off.
Commutation networks have to be added to the basic converter only to turn-off the SCR's. The
efficiency, size and weight of these networks are directly related to the turn-off time, tq of the SCR.
The commutation circuits utilised resonant networks or charged capacitors. Quite a few
commutation networks were designed and some like the McMurray-Bedford becamewidely
accepted.

Asymmetrical, light-activated, reverse conducting SCR's Quite a few varieties of the

basic SCR have been proposed for specific applications. The Asymmetrical thyristor is convenient
when reactive powers are involved and the light activated SCR assists in paralleling or series
operation.
MOSFET
The Power MOSFET technology has mostly reached maturity and is the most popular device
for SMPS, lighting ballast type of application where high switching frequencies are desired but
operating voltages are low. Being a voltage fed, majority carrier device (resistive behaviour)
with a typically rectangular Safe Operating Area, it can be conveniently utilized. Utilising shared
manufacturing processes, comparative costs of MOSFETs are attractive. For low frequency
applications, where the currents drawn by the equivalent capacitances across its terminals are
small, it can also be driven directly by integrated circuits. These capacitances are the main
hindrance to operating the MOSFETS at speeds of several MHz. The resistive characteristics of
its main terminals permit easy paralleling externally also. At high current low voltage applications
the MOSFET offers best conduction voltage specifications as the RDS(ON) specification is current
rating dependent. However, the inferior features of the inherent anti- parallel diode and its higher
conduction losses at power frequencies and voltage levels restrict its wider application.

The IGBT
It is a voltage controlled four-layer device with the advantages of the MOSFET driver
and the Bipolar Main terminal. IGBTs can be classified as punch-through (PT) and non-punch-
through (NPT) structures. In the punch-through IGBT, a better trade-off between the forward
voltage drop and turn-off time can be achieved. Punch-through IGBTs are available up to about
1200 V. NPT IGBTs of up to about 4 KV have been reported in literature and they are more robust
than PT IGBTs particularly under short circuit conditions. However they have a higher forward
voltage drop than the PT IGBTs. Its switching times can be controlled by suitably shaping the
drive signal. This gives the IGBT a number of advantages: it does not require protective circuits,
it can be connected in parallel without difficulty, and series connection is possible without dv/dt
snubbers. The IGBT is presently one of the most popular device in viewof its wide ratings,
switching speed of about 100 KHz a easy voltage drive and a square Safe Operating Area devoid
of a Second Breakdown region.

The GTO
The GTO is a power switching device that can be turned on by a short pulse of gate current and
turned off by a reverse gate pulse. This reverse gate current amplitude is dependent on the anode
current to be turned off. Hence there is no need for an external commutation circuit to turn it off.
Because turn-off is provided by bypassing carriers directly to the gate circuit, its turn-off time is
short, thus giving it more capability for highfrequency operation than thyristors. The GTO
symbol and turn-off characteristics are shown in Fig. 30.3. GTOs have the I2t withstand capability
and hence can be protected by semiconductor fuses. For reliable operation of GTOs, the critical
aspects are proper design of the gate turn-off circuit and the snubber circuit.

Power Converter Topologies

A Power Electronic Converter processes the available form to another having a different frequency
and/or voltage magnitude. There can be four basic types of converters depending uponthe function
performed:
 CONVERSION
FROM/TO NAME FUNCTION SYMBOL

DC to DC Chopper Constant to variable DC or

variable to constant DC

DC to AC Inverter DC to AC of desired voltage and

frequency
~

AC to DC Rectifier AC to unipolar (DC) current

~

Cycloconverter,
AC to AC AC-PAC, AC of desired frequency and/or
Matrix magnitude from generally line ~
converter AC ~

Base / gate drive circuit

All discrete controlled devices, regenerative or otherwise have three terminals. Two of these are
the Main Terminals. One of the Main Terminals and the third form the Control Terminal. The
amplification factor of all the devices (barring the now practically obsolete BJT) are quite high,
though turn-on gain is not equal to turn-off gain. The drive circuit is required to satisfy the
control terminal characteristics to efficiently tun-on each of the devices of the converter, turn them
off, if possible, again optimally and also to protect the device against faults, mostly over- currents.
Being driven by a common controller, the drives must also be isolated from each other as the
potentials of the Main Terminal which doubles as a Control terminal are different at various
locations of the converter. Gate-turn-off-able devices require precise gate drive waveform for
optimal switching. This necessitates a wave-shaping amplifier. This amplifier is located after the
isolation stage.

Thus separate isolated power supplies are also required for each Power device in the converter
(the ones having a common Control Terminal - say the Emitter in an IGBT - may require a few
less). There are functionally two types of isolators: the pulse transformer which can transmit after
isolation, in a multi-device converter, both the un-shaped signal and power andoptical isolators
which transmit only the signal. The former is sufficient for a SCR without isolated power supplies
at the secondary. The latter is a must for practically all other devices.Fig. 1.7 illustrates to
typical drive circuits for an IGBT and an SCR.
 IGBT

Vref
COMPARATOR TIMER

Fig. 1.7 Simple gate-drive and protection circuit for a stand-alone IGBT and a SCR

Protection of Power devices and converters

Power electronic converters often operate from the utility mains and are exposed to the
disturbances associated with it. Even otherwise, the transients associated with switching circuits
and faults that occur at the load point stress converters and devices. Consequently, several
protection schemes must be incorporated in a converter. It is necessary to protect both the Main
Terminals and the control terminals. Some of these techniques are common for all devices and
converters. However, differences in essential features of devices call for special protectionschemes
particular for those devices. The IGBT must be protected against latching, and similarlythe GTO's
turn-off drive is to be disabled if the Anode current exceeds the maximum permissible turn-off-
able current specification. Power semiconductor devices are commonly protected against:

1. Over-current;
2. di/dt;
3. Voltage spike or over-voltage;
4. dv/dt ;
5. Gate-under voltage;
6. Over voltage at gate;
7. Excessive temperature rise;
8. Electro-static discharge;

Semiconductor devices of all types exhibit similar responses to most of the stresses, however
there are marked differences. The SCR is the most robust device on practically all counts. That it
has an I2t rating is proof that its internal thermal capacities are excellent. A HRC fuse, suitably
selected, and in co-ordination with fast circuit breakers would mostly protect it. This sometimes
becomes a curse when the cost of the fuse becomes exorbitant. All transistors, specially the BJT
and the IGBT is actively protected (without any operating cost!) by sensing the Main Terminal
voltage, as shown in Fig. 1.7. This voltage is related to the current carried by the device. Further,
the transistors permit designed gate current waveforms to minimise voltage spikes as a
consequence of sharply rising Main terminal currents. Gate resistances have significant effect on
turn-on and turn-off times of these devices - permitting optimisation of switching times for the
reduction of switching losses and voltage spikes.
 Protection schemes for over-voltages - the prolonged ones and those of short duration - are
guided by the energy content of the surges. Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV's), capacitive dynamic
voltage-clamps and crow-bar circuits are some of the strategies commonly used. For high dv/dt
stresses, which again have similar effect on all devices, R-C or R-C-D clamps are used depending
on the speed of the device. These 'snubbers' or 'switching-aid-networks', additionally minimise
switching losses of the device - thus reducing its temperature rise.
Gates of all devices are required to be protected against over-voltages (typically + 20 V)
specially for the voltage driven ones. This is achieved with the help of Zener clamps - the zener
being also a very fast-acting device.
Protection against issues like excessive case temperatures and ESD follow well-set practices.
Forced-cooling techniques are very important for the higher rated converters and whole
environments are air-cooled to lower the ambient.

Key questions?
1. How is Power electronics distinct from linear electronics?
2. Describe the history of evolution of Power Semiconductor device.
3. What is difference between electrolytic capacitor filter, tantalum capacitor filter and grass
capacitors?
4. Differentiate between Phase control SCR, Inverter grade SCR and Light-Activate SCR.
5. Why Base/gate drive circuit is required for Power devices?
6. What are the protection requirement of Power devices and converters?