Unit 2

(2 Marks)
1. What are some commonly used 3D printing software packages?
Autodesk Fusion 360. Autodesk Fusion 360 is a cloud-based software that integrates
CAD software, computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and computer-aided
engineering (CAE) tools for 3D product design and manufacturing. ...
Blender. ...
Catia. ...
Creo. ...
FreeCAD. ...
nTop. ...
Onshape. ...
Rhino.

2. What are the most common additive manufacturing file formats?

Several file formats are used for 3D printing, but the most common include STL
(Stereolithography), OBJ (Object File Format), AMF (Additive Manufacturing File),
and 3MF (3D Manufacturing Format). Each format has its specific uses depending on
the requirements of the print job.

3. How do prepare 3D printable models?

1 Choose a software. The first step to create 3D models for printing is to choose a
software that suits your needs and preferences. ...
2 Design your model. Once you have chosen a software, you can start designing your
model. ...
3 Check your model. ...
4 Export your model. ...
5 Slice your model. ...

4. Why is pre-processing crucial in additive manufacturing?

Pre-processing encompasses the steps between design and printing. Process of 3D
printing starts with designing in CAD. Then printer software slices 3D CAD file into
layers. For each slice, the software converts the data into machine code that
determines tool paths for the machine to follow.

5. When is support structure needed? And why?

When the print has a suspended or bridge structure, if the supporting structure is not
used, it will cause deformation of the parts during the printing process, which will
lead to printing failure.
 Unit 2
(13Marks)
1. (a) Write briefly about the various geometric modeling techniques.

Geometric modeling can be classified into the following:

Solid Modeling

Also known as volume modeling, this is the most widely used method, providing a
complete description of solid modeling. Solid modeling defines an object by its
nodes, edges, and surfaces; therefore, it gives a perfect and explicit mathematical
representation of a precisely enclosed and filled volume. Solid modeling requires
topology rules to guarantee that all covers are stitched together correctly. This
geometry modeling procedure is based upon the “Half-Space” concept.
A solid model begins with a solid, which is then stitched together using topology
rules. Solid modeling has many benefits, including improved visualization and
functional automation. CAD software can quickly calculate the actual geometry of
complex shapes. A cube, for example, has six faces, a radius of 8.4 mm, and many
radii. It has many angles and a shallow pyramid on each face. By applying solid
modeling concepts, CAD programs can quickly calculate these attributes for a given
cube. Similarly, a cube with rounded edges has many radii and faces.

There are two prevalent ways of representing solid models:

Constructive solid geometry: Constructive solid geometry combines primary solid
objects (prism, cylinder, cone, sphere, etc.). These shapes are either added or deleted
to form the final solid shape.
Boundary representation: In boundary representation, an object’s definition is
determined by its spatial boundaries. It describes the points, edges, and surfaces of a
volume and issues the command to rotate and sweep bind facets into a third-
dimensional solid. The union of these surfaces enables the formation of a surface that
explicitly encloses a volume. Solid Modeling is the most widely used geometric
modeling in three dimensions, and it serves the following purpose:
 Solid modeling supports weight or volume calculation, centroids, moments of inertia
calculation, stress analysis, heat conduction calculations, dynamic analysis, and
system dynamics analysis.
 Solid modeling supports the generation of codes, robotic and assembly simulation
 Solid modeling stores both geometric and topological information; it can verify if the
two objects occupy the same space
 Solid modeling improves design quality, enhances visualization, and has the potential
for functional automation and integration.
Different solid modeling techniques are as follows:

 Constructive Solid Geometry

 Boundary Representation
 Feature-based modeling
 Primitive Instancing
 Cell decomposition, spatial enumeration, octree

Surface Modeling

Surface modeling represents the solid appearing object. Although it is a more

complicated representation method than wireframe modeling, it is not as refined as
solid modeling. Although surface and solid models look identical, the former cannot
be sliced open the way solid models can be. This model makes use of B-splines and
Bezier for controlling curves.

When polygons or NURBS represent surfaces, the computer can convert the
commands into mathematical models. These models are saved in files and can be
opened for editing and analysis at any time. The process of importing models from
other programs is often complex and problematic, resulting in ambiguous results. In
contrast, surface modeling allows for precise changes to difficult surfaces.

A typical surface modeling process involves the following steps:

 Generation of a model combining the three-dimensional surfaces and solids.

 Conversion of the model to surfaces, taking advantage of associative modelling.
 Validation of imperfections with surface analysis tools.
 Reconstructing surfaces of objects to apply smoothness to the object.
Surface modeling is used to:
 To shape the design and representation of complicated objects such as a car, ships, and
airplane bodies, as well as castings.
 Surface modeling, in contrast, allows users to see the complete surface points at a
time. It also allows you to control the exact contour of just a single face.
 There are situations where models imported from another CAD system usually lack
details of the features it comprises. If the surfaces are complex, applying changes to
this type of geometry can be quite the task. In such cases, surface modeling techniques
can be used on one or more faces of the model to make the desired changes.
 Surface modeling enables building one face at a time so that one can control the exact
contour and direction of any face. This feature comes in handy at a time when a solid
modeling technique fails to create the complex shape of a feature as it builds up
several sides of the shape at once.
 As it is not limited to the direct construction of a model face, surfaces can also be used
as a reference geometry in a transitional step towards creating the required model
face.
 Now, another modeling technique requires a combination of solid and surface
modeling techniques to create a solid model. This technique generally involves
starting the model as a solid and using surfaces to modify it. Or changing the solid to
surfaces to shape and contour it, then turning it back to a solid when done.
Geometric surface modeling has proven to be extremely useful in computer graphics.
Multiresolution modeling involves the generation of various surfaces at different
levels of detail and accuracy. The resulting surfaces are then applied to various
problems, including general surface estimation from structured and unstructured data.
One such application is a subdivision surface, which begins from a simple primitive
and gradually adds tools and details.

Wireframe Modeling

A wireframe model is composed of points, lines, curves, and surfaces connected by

point coordinates. Because the model is not solid, it is difficult to visualize, but it
helps generate simple geometric shapes. The resulting model contains information on
every object’s point, edge, face, and vertices. This model is beneficial for creating an
orthographic isometric or perspective view. The lines within a wireframe connect to
 create polygons, such as triangles and rectangles, representing three-dimensional
shapes when bound together. The outcome may range from a cube to a complex three-
dimensional scene with people and objects. The number of polygons within a model
indicates how detailed the wireframe 3D model is.

Wireframe modeling helps in matching a 3D drawing model to its reference. Planar

objects can be moved to a 3D location once they have been created. It allows the
creator to match the vertex points to align with the desired reference and see the
reference through the model. Although Wireframe modeling is a quick and easy way
to demonstrate concepts, creating a fully detailed, precisely constructed model for an
idea can be highly time-consuming. If it does not match what was visualized for the
project, all that time and effort is wasted. In wireframe modeling, one can skip the
detailed work and present a very skeletal framework that is simple to create and
apprehensible to others.

Using a wireframe model as a reference geometry will help you create a solid or
surface model that follows a definite shape. In this way, you can easily visualize your
model and select objects. The wireframe model is decomposed into a series of simple
wireframes and the desired face topology.

1. (b) Explain the significance of generating support structures for 3D printing and the
design considerations involved, along with relevant illustrations.

Support structures in 3D printing is like thin ribs whose small tips are very thin and
slightly touch the part to save resin material and make them easier to remove. The usage
of support structures deeply impact the print quality after post-processing work and
printing success rate. So when designing support structures in 3D Printing, there really is
a lot to consider.

Step 1: Take Full Advantage of Slicer Software

For most designers especially the green hand, it’s perplexed to detect when and where
the support structures are needed. If there is a experienced mentor to give some
reasonable suggestions, most problems will be solved. Maybe this living mentor can not
be always available, but slicer software is online all the time.

The slicer, also called slicing software, is a computer software used in the majority of 3D
printing processes for the conversion of a 3D object model to specific instructions for the
printer. Quality of supports greatly depends on slicer. For example, the number of
supports, their location, where they touch the model and the structure can be calculated
by ChiTuBox, a free slicing tool. Then ChiTuBox will generate supports automatically
depending on the shape, orientation and weight of the part being printed.

Step 2: Avoide Supports on Complex Surface

is very often used for applications where appearance or a smooth surface finish is
required. In this case, it’s important to design your part to avoid that the forward-facing
areas of your print are not in contact with support structures.

Orientation plays an important role in this moment. If the aesthetic appearance of a

surface on a component is paramount, orientating the part so that there is little to no
support in contact with that area can also be an option.

Step 3: Reorient the Part

Part orientation plays a crucial role on where support is located for 3D Printing. By
reorienting a part, the amount of support can be drastically reduced. Besides, reorienting
a part can also be beneficial for the improvement of surface quality as mentioned above.

In ChiTuBox, there are two ways to reorient a part. Click the orientation button,
gradually increase/decrease XYZ angle by 15°each time or directly enter the value in the
input box.

Also you can also directly double click the mouse to activate the rotation indicator line
and reorient the part by moving the mouse in X (red rotation indicator line) /Y (green
rotation indicator line) / Z (blue rotation indicator line) direction.

Step 4: Check the Contact Depth

Support structures in SLA/DLP/LCD 3D printing is like thin ribs with only small tips
actually touching the print surface which make them quite easy to remove manually,
either by hand or using pliers. However, this also means the connection may be very
fragile if the parameter of contact depth is too small. In this case, you only get support
and raft structures on the build plate after 3D printing instead of the intended object for a
bottom-up stererolithography 3D printer.

Step 5: Distribute Supports Evenly

For a bottom-up stererolithography 3D printer, the object will be stressed uniformly by

distributing supports evenly. The places where the supports are dense will hold the tug of
war between the build plate and the FEP film in the bottom of the vat. While the sparse
ones may separate from the supports which will be hung up to result in misrun or
distortion.

Step 6: Use Interconnected Supports

When generating supports, it’s better to bridge supports together instead of placing
them individually. If your slicer can't bring it to achievement, just abandon it. Such
interconnection among supports in ChiTuBox greatly reduce chances of support
 failures. This technique will produce stiffer set of base and secondary supports that are
less prone to breakage and failures.

Step 7: Avoid Supports Overlapping With Model

The actual part to touch the print surface can only be small tips of support structures.
For complex models, sometimes you may overlap supports with model surface if not
editing carefully. When removing the supports in post-processing, the touching area
will leave a stick which may damage the surface when polishing.

2. (a) Describe in detail about process flow involved in preparation of Digital 3D CAD
model for additive manufacturing.

3D printing workflow stages

There are five stages to 3D printing:
Modelling in CAD
Generating an STL or 3MF file
Slicing
Printing
Post-processing

Modelling in CAD software

Modelling refers to drawing or obtaining a 3D model in software. You can do this from scratch in
software, scan a physical object with a 3D scanner, or obtain a 3D model someone else has
drawn (Thingiverse is a good place to start).
The model you design, scan, create or obtain is what your 3D printer will produce, providing it
supports the required specifications of the model.

Generating an STL or 3MF file

An STL file is a raw, unstructured file containing only the surface geometry of your three-
dimensional object. It is generated by CAD software at the end of modelling to describe the
surface and shape of the 3D model.
A 3MF file does the same thing but contains more data. 3MF is an XML-based data format that
includes data on textures, materials, colours and mesh. 3MF is superior to STL, but an STL may
be all you need for basic models.
We need to generate an STL or 3MF file because an STL file is needed to produce a type of code
your 3D printer needs: G-code (more on this below).

Slicing in slicing software

Slicing is the process of transforming an STL file into G-code. G-code contains printer commands,
so what slicing does is it takes the STL file’s geometry data and creates a list of instructions the
printer must follow to print the model.
Slicing gives your printer instructions based on nozzle size, filament and print profile, taking into
account temperature range, speed and extrusion type.
Many 3D printer manufacturers have their own slicing software like Formlabs
PreForm and Ultimaker Cura. You can also use third-party software like Slic3r.

3D printing
 Printing is the simplest step – just load your material, send your file to print and press go! Most
3D printers today have cloud-based software so you can print remotely, or you can do it the old
fashioned way and press the button on your 3D printer.
The only things to consider are filament type, filament supply, using the correct nozzle for the
filament and temperature range and accurate calibration.

Post-processing
In the case of FFF prints, it isn’t necessary to post-process them, unless you want to paint
them or smooth them. If you want to smooth FFF and plastic parts to make them look
like injection moulded parts, vapour smoothing is the most reliable method.
Models printed with an SLA (stereolithography) 3D printer often require curing with UV
light to ensure optimal mechanical and visual characteristics.

2. (b) Explain the detail of slicing and the corresponding features.

The act of converting a 3D model into a set of instructions for the 3D printers is
called Slicing. Quite literally, it ‘slices’ the 3D model into thin layers, and further
determine how each layer should be printed (the tool path) to get minimum time, best
strength, etc.

A slicer software takes a 3D CAD model which is generally an STL format file and
converts it into a g-code that gives commands to the printer. Following are the three
major types of settings that can be controlled in a slicer software —

1. Print Settings: layer heights, shells, infill per cent, and speed
2. Filament Settings: filament diameter, extrusion multiplier, the temperature of the
extruder, and print bed.
3. Printer settings: nozzle diameter, print bed shape (L x W), and Z offset.

In the next few sections, we will delve into some of these Slicer settings that will directly
impact the 3D print quality of the models.

Features of a Slicing Software

Once you retrieve the STL file from the CAD software, there are certain settings in the
software that you must cater to…

Orientation
After loading the stl file on the slicing software, we need to align the 3D model to the
given space. As mentioned above, one has to follow the orientation rule.

Layer Height (Object resolution)

The resolution of a 3D object is highly dependent on its layer height. Smaller layer
heights give high resolution and smooth surface. However, the overall printing time
could be more.

Object Shells (Shell Thickness)

The outer layer that builds the wall of the object is called the object shell or perimeter.
The strength of the object is dependent on the number of shells present. Higher shell
count → higher strength!
Density: Infill density is measured in % percentage. It can range from 0–100%. An
object with 0% will have a hollow interior and an object with 100% density will be solid.
Objects with high density will have a longer printing time. The recommended shape for
the infill for optimal speed and strength is a honeycomb structure.

4. (a) Explain why data processing is essential for additive manufacturing processes and
discuss two types of digitalization techniques used in reverse engineering.

STL: Surface Tessellation Language (STL) is the preferred data format for 3D
printing [Jurrens 1999]. It describes the geometry surface of the product by
approximation with triangle facets. The included normal vector describes the
orientation of the triangle facet. The file structure of STL is written in ASCII format
or binary. The simple structure of the format prevents syntax errors. It does not
include additional information about manufacturing process or product specific
characteristics such as colour [Hiller and Lipson 2009], [Eragubi 2013].

AMF: The Additive Manufacturing File Format is an interchange format using

triangle surfaces like STL for the generation of geometry. The significant benefit in
comparison to STL is the possibility to manipulate edges of triangles to create bent
triangles. The XML based data format [World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) 2008]
includes additional information like product colour or material. The format is
designed to fulfil various requirements such as technology independence, simplicity,
scalability etc. [ISO/ASTM 52915].

3MF: The 3D Manufacturing Format describes a 3D based geometry in a markup

format (XML). Requirements for the exact visualization of the geometry with
resources like surfaces and textures are included. Additionally different aspects like
digital signatures and core properties are contained [3MF Consortium 2015].

PLY: The Polygon File Format (PLY) relieves implementation and has flexible
visualisation possibilities for 3D geometry. Additional information like colour values
or material are added in the PLY format. The file structure is written in ASCII format
[Turk 1994].

DXF: Drawing Interchange File Format (DXF) is a CAD format developed by

Autodesk. It is well suited for cross-system data exchange of 3D models. The file
format consists of header, tables, blocks and entities. General information are
included in the header of the file. Information about colour, layers and geometry are
implemented as additional characteristics of the object [Autodesk 2011].

3ds: 3ds format was developed by Autodesk and is a specific format for the 3D
modelling software "3D Studio Max". The format consists of Chunks with a
Chunk_ID, Chunk_length and a Chunk_value. Geometries are built by triangulation
without normales. A grouping of contiguous polygons to form a smooth surface called
"smoothing groups" can calculate the normales [van Velsen et al. 1997].

ISO 10303 Standard: ISO 10303 called STEP is a standard for exchange of product
model information. STEP is a compilation of international standard. An integrated
 architecture of domain specific application protocols (AP) builds the standard. STEP
uses ESPRESS as specification language [SCRA Applied Technologies 2006].

Types of Reverse Engineering

 Black Box Reverse Engineering: In this type, the engineers analyze the external
behavior of the product without any knowledge of its internal components or
workings. They observe the inputs and outputs of the product to determine its
functionality.
 Gray Box Reverse Engineering: In this type, the engineers have some knowledge
about the internal workings of the product, such as its architecture or programming
code, but not the complete details. They use this knowledge to reverse engineer the
product and understand its functionality.
 White Box Reverse Engineering: In this type, the engineers have complete access to
the internal workings of the product, such as its hardware and software components.
They use this knowledge to reverse engineer the product and understand its
functionality.
 3D Reverse Engineering: This type of reverse engineering is used for physical
objects. It involves creating a 3D digital model of an existing object using various
scanning techniques, such as laser scanning or computed tomography (CT) scanning.
 Software Reverse Engineering: This type of reverse engineering is used to
understand the software architecture of an existing product. It involves analyzing the
compiled code to determine the programming logic and algorithms used in the
product.
 Mechanical Reverse Engineering: This type of reverse engineering is used to
understand the mechanical components of an existing product. It involves
disassembling the product and analysing its individual parts to determine its design
and functionality.
 Electronic Reverse Engineering: This type of reverse engineering is used to
understand the electronic components of an existing product. It involves analyzing
the circuit board and individual components to determine their design and
functionality.
 (15 MARKS)
1. (a) A design firm is assigned to develop a prototype of a new product utilizing 3D
printing. Explain the procedure of converting a CAD model into an STL file,
emphasizing its importance in 3D printing. Include a case study example of
fabricating a dental implant for a patient with cancer-affected lower jaw bone.

CAD to STL Conversion

Listed below are the steps for creating an STL file from different CAD systems. The
list is ordered alphabetically by product.
 First check for errors
 An STL object must define a complete and closed surface. Use
 Select an object.
 Click Modify
 Click More …
 Select “STL-Check” under Object-Space Modifiers
 Select Check
 If there are no errors, continue to export the STL file by:
 Clicking File>Export
 Select “StereoLitho [*.STL]” in Save as type
 Select location in Save in
 Enter a name in File name
 Click Save; OK
 Export To STL dialog:
 Object Name: Enter a name for the object you want to save in STL format.
 Binary/ASCII: Choose whether the STL output file will be binary or ASCII
(character) data. ASCII STL files are much larger than binary STL files.
 Selected Only: Exports only objects that you selected in the 3D Studio scene.