Clock Tree Synthesis (CTS)

Introduction
In the intricate world of synchronous digital circuit design, the clock signal stands as the
heartbeat, orchestrating the precise timing of operations across millions or even billions of
transistors. Clock Tree Synthesis (CTS) is a crucial step in the physical design flow that
focuses on distributing this critical clock signal from its source to all the clock pins of
sequential elements (like flip-flops and latches) on the integrated circuit (IC). The primary
goal of CTS is to ensure that the clock signal arrives at all these destination points with
minimal variation in delay and within specified timing constraints. A well-designed clock tree
is paramount for the correct and high-performance operation of the chip.

Skew and Latency Balancing

Two fundamental concepts in CTS are clock skew and clock latency.
Clock Skew: Clock skew refers to the difference in arrival times of the clock signal at
different sequential elements. Ideally, the skew should be zero, meaning the clock arrives at
all points simultaneously. However, in reality, due to variations in wire lengths, buffer delays,
and process variations, some skew is inevitable. Excessive skew can lead to timing violations,
such as hold time violations (where data changes before the receiving flip-flop has captured
the previous value) or setup time violations (where data doesn't arrive at the flip-flop with
enough time before the clock edge). CTS aims to minimize and control clock skew within
acceptable limits.
Clock Latency: Clock latency is the delay from the clock source to a specific clock pin of a
sequential element. It's the total time it takes for the clock signal to propagate through the
clock distribution network. There are two types of latency:
Source Latency: The delay from the external clock source pin on the chip to the clock root
(the starting point of the clock distribution network within the chip).
Insertion Delay (or Sink Latency): The delay from the clock root to a specific clock sink (the
clock pin of a sequential element). CTS strives to balance the insertion delays to minimize
skew and also to keep the overall latency within the timing budget.

CTS Algorithm
While the specific algorithms employed by different Electronic Design Automation (EDA)
tools vary, the general approach of a CTS algorithm involves several key steps:
Clock Tree Topology Generation: This involves deciding the structure of the clock
distribution network. Common topologies include:
H-Tree: A balanced tree structure often used for regular array-based designs.
X-Tree: Another balanced structure, useful for distributing the clock across a wider area.
Spine-and-Branch: A central spine with branches reaching out to different clock sinks.
Hybrid Topologies: Combinations of the above to optimize for specific design requirements.
Buffer Insertion and Placement: Buffers are inserted along the clock paths to:

Reduce the RC delay of long wires.

Shape the clock signal (improve rise/fall times).
Balance the delays of different paths to minimize skew. The placement of these buffers is
critical for achieving the desired skew and latency.
Wire Routing: The clock network is routed using specialized routing algorithms that prioritize
symmetry and equal length paths to minimize skew.
Optimization: After the initial tree construction, optimization algorithms are applied to further
reduce skew and latency, often involving buffer resizing, buffer relocation, and minor routing
adjustments.
The algorithm iteratively refines the clock tree based on the timing constraints and physical
layout information.

CTS Constraints (Spec File)

The behavior and goals of the CTS tool are governed by a specification file (often referred to
as the "spec file" or "SDC file" with CTS-specific commands). This file contains crucial
constraints, including:
Clock Definition: Specifies the clock source, its period, waveform, and duty cycle.
Skew Constraints: Defines the maximum allowable skew between different groups of clock
sinks or between any two clock sinks.
Latency Constraints: Specifies the maximum and minimum acceptable insertion delay for the
clock signal.
Transition Time Constraints: Sets limits on the rise and fall times of the clock signal at the
clock pins.
Clock Groups: Defines logical groupings of clock sinks that might have specific skew
requirements relative to each other.
Shielding Requirements: Specifies nets that need to be shielded to prevent crosstalk with the
clock network.
Routing Layer Preferences: Suggests preferred metal layers for routing the clock network.
Maximum Capacitance and Resistance: Limits on the electrical characteristics of the clock
network.
CTS Exceptions
During CTS, certain design elements might require special handling and are defined as
exceptions:
Float Pins: Clock pins that are intentionally left unconnected. The CTS tool should ignore
these pins.
Stop Pins: Specific clock pins where the clock tree should not extend further. These are often
the clock inputs of specific modules or IP blocks where the clocking is handled internally.
Exclude Pins: Other pins (not necessarily clock pins) that should be avoided by the CTS
routing, perhaps due to power or signal integrity concerns.

Power Dissipation in Clock Tree (Clock Gating)

The clock tree is often a significant contributor to the overall power dissipation of an IC due
to its high activity factor and the large number of driven loads. Clock gating is a power-
saving technique that selectively disables the clock signal to inactive parts of the circuit. This
is achieved by inserting gating logic (typically AND or OR gates) in the clock paths.

When the gating condition is met (e.g., a specific control signal indicates inactivity), the
clock signal is blocked from reaching the downstream sequential elements, thus reducing
dynamic power consumption.
Clock Gating Checks
To ensure the correct functionality of clock gating, CTS tools perform several checks:
Clock Gate Hold (CGH) Pathways: These checks ensure that there are no timing violations
introduced by the clock gating logic. Specifically, they verify that the enable signal of the
clock gate is stable for a sufficient time before and after the active clock edge to prevent
glitches or metastability. CTS tools analyze the timing paths from the enable signal to the
clock gate and then to the clocked elements.
CTS Integration with Clock Gating: The CTS tool needs to be aware of the inserted clock
gates and consider their delay and placement during the clock tree construction and
optimization. It ensures that the clock signal arrives at the gated elements with the required
timing.

Clock Gate Enable Checks (CGC Paths)

These checks focus specifically on the timing of the enable signals of the clock gates. The
CTS tool analyzes the paths from the source of the enable signal to the clock gate to ensure
that the enable signal transitions at the correct time relative to the clock edge. This prevents
spurious clocking or missed clock cycles.
Integrated Clock Gates (ICG)
Modern EDA tools often support the use of pre-designed Integrated Clock Gates (ICGs).
These are standard library cells that combine the clock gating logic with a latch or flip-flop to
synchronize the enable signal with the clock. Using ICGs can simplify the design and
improve the reliability of clock gating. The CTS tool recognizes these ICG cells and
incorporates them into the clock tree while respecting their timing characteristics.

Master, Generated, and Virtual Clocks

Master Clock: The primary clock source in the design, usually defined at an input pin of the
chip or generated by an on-chip oscillator. All other clocks are typically derived from this
master clock.
Generated Clock: A clock signal that is derived from a master clock or another generated
clock through some clock-modifying circuitry, such as frequency dividers, multipliers, or
phase-locked loops (PLLs). CTS needs to properly handle these generated clocks and ensure
their timing relationships with the master clock are maintained.
Virtual Clock: A clock that is defined for timing analysis purposes but does not physically
exist in the design. Virtual clocks are often used to specify timing constraints for input and
output paths that are relative to an external clock source. CTS is not directly involved in the
physical implementation of virtual clocks but needs to be aware of their definitions for
accurate timing analysis.

Types of Clocks
Clocks in a digital design can be categorized based on their characteristics and usage:
System Clock: The main clock that synchronizes the majority of the digital logic.
Peripheral Clocks: Clocks that drive specific peripheral modules and may have different
frequencies than the system clock.
Gated Clocks: Clocks that are selectively enabled or disabled to save power.
Divided Clocks: Clocks generated by dividing the frequency of a higher-frequency clock.
Multiplied Clocks: Clocks generated by multiplying the frequency of a lower-frequency clock
(often using PLLs).
CTS needs to handle each type of clock appropriately, considering their specific timing
requirements and relationships.

What is Crosstalk?
Crosstalk is a phenomenon where a signal on one wire (the aggressor net) induces noise or
interference on a neighboring wire (the victim net) due to capacitive and inductive coupling.
In the context of clock networks, crosstalk can lead to:
Timing Variations: Noise on the clock signal can shift the effective switching threshold,
causing variations in the clock arrival times and potentially leading to skew issues.
Signal Integrity Problems: Excessive noise can distort the clock waveform, affecting its rise
and fall times and potentially causing functional failures.
The high frequency and fast switching nature of clock signals make them significant
aggressors and susceptible victims of crosstalk.

Crosstalk Repairs and Prevention

Several techniques are employed during physical design, including CTS, to repair and
prevent crosstalk issues in the clock network:
Shielding: Inserting grounded wires (shield wires) between clock signals and other sensitive
nets can significantly reduce capacitive coupling and thus crosstalk. CTS tools can be
instructed to route shield wires alongside critical clock segments.
Non-Default Routing (NDR): Using wider wires or increased spacing between clock wires
can reduce both resistance (improving signal integrity) and capacitive coupling (reducing
crosstalk). CTS tools can utilize NDR rules specified in the technology files.
Spacing Rules: Enforcing minimum spacing between clock nets and other signal nets during
routing helps to minimize coupling.
Layer Assignment: Choosing appropriate metal layers for routing clock signals can influence
coupling. For example, using orthogonal routing directions on adjacent layers can reduce
broadside coupling.

CTS Analysis
After the clock tree is synthesized and routed, a thorough analysis is performed to verify that
it meets all the specified constraints. This analysis typically involves:
Skew Analysis: Measuring the difference in arrival times between all pairs of clock sinks or
within defined skew groups.
Latency Analysis: Calculating the insertion delay from the clock root to each clock sink and
comparing it against the specified minimum and maximum latency values.
Transition Time Analysis: Checking the rise and fall times of the clock signal at each clock
sink to ensure they are within the acceptable range.
Clock Gating Analysis: Verifying the timing of the clock gate enable signals and the overall
impact of clock gating on the clock delivery.
Crosstalk Analysis: Simulating the coupling effects between the clock network and other
signals to identify potential crosstalk violations.
EDA tools provide detailed reports highlighting any violations, allowing designers to iterate
on the CTS constraints or implementation to resolve the issues.

Post-CTS Optimization (PCO)

Even after the initial CTS implementation, further optimization steps, known as Post-CTS
Optimization (PCO), are often performed. These optimizations aim to:
Further Reduce Skew and Latency: By fine-tuning buffer sizes, locations, and wire lengths.
Improve Signal Integrity: By addressing any remaining transition time or noise issues.
Optimize Power Consumption: By potentially resizing buffers or adjusting the clock tree
structure.
Fix Timing Violations: Addressing any setup or hold time violations that might have been
exacerbated by the clock tree implementation.
PCO is typically an iterative process that works in conjunction with other physical design
optimization steps like placement and routing refinement.

Skew Groups
Skew groups are logical groupings of clock sinks that have specific skew requirements
relative to each other. These groups are defined in the CTS constraints file. Common use
cases for skew groups include:
Interface Timing: Ensuring tight skew between flip-flops that are part of a high-speed
interface.
Pipeline Stages: Controlling the timing relationship between sequential elements in different
stages of a pipeline.
Asynchronous Boundaries: Managing the clock skew between domains that operate on
different clock frequencies or are asynchronous to each other.
By defining skew groups, designers can provide more granular control over the clock timing
and ensure the correct functionality of critical circuit paths.

Conclusion
Clock Tree Synthesis is a complex but essential step in modern IC design. By carefully
balancing skew and latency, considering power dissipation through clock gating, and
mitigating crosstalk, CTS ensures the reliable and high-performance operation of the final
integrated circuit. The constraints provided in the specification file and the handling of
exceptions guide the CTS algorithms, and post-CTS optimization further refines the clock
distribution network to meet stringent timing and power requirements. Understanding
concepts like skew groups, different clock types, and the interaction with generated and
virtual clocks is crucial for successful CTS implementation.