Measuring length & volume

 When making measurements in physics, different instruments are used for

different measurements

Measuring length

 Rulers can be used to measure small distances of a few centimetres (cm).

o They are able to measure to the nearest millimetre (mm)

A ruler can measure lengths in cm or mm

 A tape measure is used to measure lengths of tens of centimetres

 A trundle wheel is used to measure lengths of tens of metres

Trundle wheels can be used to measure larger distances

Measuring volume

 Measuring cylinder are used to measure the volume of liquids

o By measuring the change in volume, a measuring cylinder can also be
used to determine the volume of an irregular shape

Measuring cylinders can be used to determine the volume of a liquid or an

irregular shaped solid
Worked Example

The diagram shows four identical ball-bearings placed between two blocks on a steel
ruler.
Calculate the diameter of one ball-bearing.

Answer:

Step 1: Measure the length of all four ball-bearings

 The blocks mark the edges of the first and last ball bearings
 The blocks make it easier to measure the length of all four ball-bearings

Step 2: Find the diameter by dividing the total length by the number of ball-
bearings

Measuring time
 In physics, stop-clocks and stopwatches are usually used to measure time
intervals
 An important factor when measuring time intervals is human reaction time
o The standard human reaction time for an alert person is 0.25 s
 o This can have a significant impact upon measurements when the
measurements involved are very short

Worked Example

A stopwatch is used to measure the time taken for a runner to complete a lap of a 400
m track.

The images below give the readings on the stopwatch at the start and the end of the
lap.

Calculate how long it took the runner to complete the lap. Give your answer in seconds.

Answer:

Step 1: Identify the start time for the lap

 The stopwatch was already at 0:55:10 when the runner started the lap
 Start time = 55.10 seconds (s)

Step 2: Identify the finish time for the lap

 The stopwatch reads 1:45:10 at the end of the lap

 Finish time = 1 minute and 45.10 s

Step 3: Convert the finish time into seconds

Step 4: Calculate the total time taken to complete the lap

Examiner Tips and Tricks

You will sometimes find that information is given in the question that is not actually
needed in the calculation.

In this worked example, you were told that the track the runner is running on is 400 m.
This had nothing to do with the calculation the question asked you to perform.

This is a common method for making a question seem more difficult. Don't let it catch
you out.

Multiple readings
 In physics, multiple readings of measurements are often taken to reduce the
impact of measurement errors

Taking multiple measurements in physics

 The measurement of the thickness of a single sheet of paper is so small that it

would be very difficult to get an accurate answer
o However, measuring the thickness of 100 sheets of paper can be done
much more accurately
 o Dividing the answer by 100 then gives an accurate figure for
the average thickness of one sheet
 Measuring the time period of a simple pendulum would incur a human reaction
time error at the start of the measurement and at the end of the measurement
 If the measurement is small, the uncertainty in the measurement is huge
 Therefore, multiple readings can be taken to reduce the uncertainty of the
measurement
o The time taken for 10 swings of the pendulum can be measured
o Dividing the answer by 10 gives a more accurate figure for
the average time taken for one swing

Scalar & vector quantities

Extended tier only

 All quantities can be one of two types:

o A scalar
o A vector

Scalars

 Scalar quantities have only a magnitude

o Mass is an example of a scalar quantity because it has
magnitude without direction
o Energy and volume are also examples of scalar quantities

Vectors

 Vector quantities have both magnitude and direction

o Weight is an example of a vector quantity because it is a force and
therefore has both magnitude and direction
o Acceleration and momentum are also examples of vector quantities

Distance and displacement

 Distance is a measure of how far an object has travelled, regardless of

direction
o Distance is the total length of the path taken
o Distance, therefore, has a magnitude but no direction
o So, distance is a scalar quantity

 Displacement is a measure of how far it is between two points in

space, including the direction
o Displacement is the length and direction of a straight line drawn from
the starting point to the finishing point
 o Displacement, therefore, has a magnitude and a direction
o So, displacement is a vector quantity

What is the difference between distance and displacement?

Displacement is a vector quantity, while distance is a scalar quantity

 When a student travels to school, there will probably be

a difference between the distance they travel and their displacement
 o The overall distance they travel includes the total lengths of all the roads,
including any twists and turns
o The overall displacement of the student would be a straight line between
their home and school, regardless of any obstacles, such as buildings,
lakes or motorways, along the way

Speed and velocity

 Speed is a measure of the distance travelled by an object per unit

time, regardless of the direction
o The speed of an object describes how fast it is moving, but not the
direction it is travelling in
o Speed, therefore, has magnitude but no direction
o So, speed is a scalar quantity

 Velocity is a measure of the displacement of an object per unit time, including

the direction
o The velocity of an object describes how fast it is moving and which
direction it is travelling in
o An object can have a constant speed but a changing velocity if the
object is changing direction
o Velocity, therefore, has magnitude and direction
o So, velocity is a vector quantity

Examples of scalars & vectors

Extended tier only

 The table below lists some common examples of scalar and vector quantities
 Corresponding scalars and their vector counterparts are aligned in the table
where applicable

Table of scalars and vectors

Scalar Vector
distance displacement
speed velocity
mass weight
force
acceleration
momentum
electric field strength
energy
volume
 density
temperature
power
Worked Example

An instructor is in charge of training junior astronauts. For one of their sessions, they
would like to explain the difference between mass and weight.

Suggest how the instructor should explain the difference between mass and weight,
using definitions of scalars and vectors in your answer.

Answer:

Step 1: Recall the definitions of a scalar and vector quantity

 Scalars are quantities that have only a magnitude

 Vectors are quantities that have both magnitude and direction

Step 2: Identify which quantity has magnitude only

 Mass is a quantity with magnitude only

 So mass is a scalar quantity
 The instructor might explain to their junior astronauts that their mass will not
change as their location in the Universe changes

Step 3: Identify which quantity has magnitude and direction

 Weight is a quantity with magnitude and direction (it is a force)

 So weight is a vector quantity
 The instructor might explain that their weight, the force on them due to
gravitational field strength, will vary depending on their location. For example, the
force of weight acting on them would be less on the Moon than it is on Earth

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Make sure you are comfortable with the differences between similar scalars and
vectors.

The most commonly confused pairings tend to be:

 distance and displacement

 speed and velocity
 weight and mass
Calculations with vectors
Extended tier only

 Vectors can be drawn using vector diagrams

Vector diagrams

 Vectors are represented by an arrow

o The length of the arrow represents the magnitude
o The direction of the arrow indicates the direction
o the scale of the arrows should be proportional to the relative magnitudes
of the forces
 an arrow for a 4 N force should be twice as long as an arrow for a 2
N force

Vector diagram of two forces acting on an object

The length of the arrows are proportional to the magnitude of the forces, and
show the direction that forces act in

Calculating vectors graphically

 Vector diagrams can be used to combine vectors

 Vectors at right angles to one another can be combined into one resultant
vector
o The resultant vector will have the combined effect of the two original
vectors
o For example, a resultant force vector will have the combined effect of two
component forces
 Component vectors are sometimes drawn with a dotted line and
a subscript indicating horizontal or vertical
o A force , for example, may have two components:

 is the vertical component of the force

  is the horizontal component of force

 To calculate vectors graphically means carefully producing a scale drawing with

all lengths and angles correct
o This should be done using a sharp pencil, ruler and protractor

 Follow these steps to carry out calculations with vectors on graphs

1. Choose a scale which fits the page

 For example, use 1 cm = 10 m or 1 cm = 1 N, so that the diagram is
around 10 cm high
2. Draw the vectors at right angles to one another
3. Complete the rectangle
4. Draw the resultant vector diagonally from the origin
5. Carefully measure the length of the resultant vector
6. Use the scale factor to calculate the magnitude
7. Use the protractor to measure the angle

Vectors can be measured or calculated graphically using scaled vector diagrams

Combining vectors by calculation

 In this method, a vector diagram is still essential but it does not need to be
exactly to scale
 The vector diagram can take the form of a sketch, as long as the resultant side,
component sides are clearly labelled

Using a vector diagram to resolve two force vectors F1 and F2 into a resultant
force vector FR

 When the magnitude of only one vector is known, and the angle is known,
then trigonometry can be used to find the magnitude of the missing vector
o The mnemonic 'soh-cah-toa' can used to remember the trigonometric
functions
 Trigonometry can be used when the magnitude of one vector and the angle is
known

 When the magnitudes of two of the vectors are known, then Pythagoras'
theorem can be used to find the magnitude of the missing vector

Pythagoras's theorem can be used when the magnitudes of two of the three
vectors are known
Worked Example
A force acts on an object with 60 N to the right. A second force of 100 N acts on the
same object in the upward direction.

Calculate the resultant force acting on the object.

Answer:

Step 1: Draw a vector diagram

Step 2: Calculate the magnitude of the resultant force using Pythagoras' theorem

Step 3: Calculate the direction of the resultant vector using trigonometry

Step 4: State the final answer, complete with magnitude and direction

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If the question specifically asks you to use the calculation or graphical method, you
must solve the problem as asked. However, if the choice is left up to you then any
correct method will lead to the correct answer.

The graphical method sometimes feels easier than calculating, but once you are
confident with trigonometry and Pythagoras you will find calculating quicker and more
accurate.

Speed
 The speed of an object is defined as

Distance travelled per unit time

 Speed is a scalar quantity

o This is because it only contains a magnitude (without a direction)
  For objects that are moving at a constant speed, the equation for calculating speed is:

 Where:
o = speed, measured in metres per second (m/s)
o = distance travelled, measured in metres (m)
o = time, measured in seconds (s)

Average speed
 The speed of an object can vary throughout its journey
 Therefore, it is often more useful to know an object's average speed

Examples of average speeds

A hiker might have an average speed of 2.0 m/s, whereas a particularly excited bumble bee
can have average speeds of up to 4.5 m/s

 The equation for calculating the average speed of an object is:

  Average speed considers the total distance travelled and the total time taken

Formula triangle for average speed, distance moved and time taken

How to use formula triangles

 Formula triangles are really useful for knowing how to rearrange physics equations
 To use them:

1. Cover up the quantity to be calculated, this is known as the 'subject' of the equation
2. Look at the position of the other two quantities
 If they are on the same line, this means they are multiplied
 If one quantity is above the other, this means they are divided - make sure to keep
the order of which is on the top and bottom of the fraction!

 In the example below, to calculate average speed, cover-up the variable speed so that
only distance and time are left
o The equation is revealed as:
 To use a formula triangle, simply cover up the quantity you wish calculate and the structure
of the equation is revealed
Worked Example

Planes fly at typical average speeds of around 250 m/s.

Worked Example

Planes fly at typical average speeds of around 250 m/s.

Calculate the distance travelled by a plane moving at this average speed for 2 hours.

Answer:

Step 1: List the known quantities

 Average speed = 250 m/s

 Time taken = 2 hours

Step 2: Write the relevant equation

Step 3: Rearrange to make distance moved the subject

Step 4: Convert any units

 The time given in the question is not in standard units

 Convert 2 hours into seconds:
Step 5: Substitute the values for average speed and time taken

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Rearranging equations is an important skill in Physics. You can use the equation
triangles to help you practice, but it is better not to rely on them because they do not
work for all equations you may need to rearrange in the exam.

Velocity
 Velocity is a vector quantity with magnitude and direction
 Velocity is defined as:

Speed in a given direction

 The direction of a velocity can be given in words

o For example, 20 m/s east
 Or the direction of velocity can be given using a positive or negative value
o For example, −20 m/s
 A positive direction is typically in the direction of the initial motion, to the right, or
upward
 A negative velocity is typically in the opposite direction to the initial velocity, to
the left, or downward

Comparing speed and velocity

The cars in the diagram above have the same speed (a scalar quantity) but
different velocities (a vector quantity). Fear not, they are in different lanes!
Examiner Tips and Tricks
The positive and negative values of velocity can be assigned to any direction as long as
the negative velocity is in the opposite direction to the positive value. You can decide
which direction you assign to be positive as long as you are consistent throughout a
question.

 The equation for velocity is very similar to the equation for speed:

 Where:
o v = velocity in metres per second (m/s)
o s = displacement, measured in metres (m)
o t = time, measured in seconds (s)
 Velocity is a vector quantity, so it uses displacement, s, which is another vector
quantity

Acceleration
Extender tier only

 Acceleration describes how the velocity of an object changes over time

 Acceleration is defined as:

The rate of change of velocity

 In other words, acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time

 The acceleration of an object is often changing throughout an object's journey
 Therefore, is it often useful to know the average acceleration

Acceleration=change in velocity/time taken

 Where:
o = acceleration in metres per second squared (m/s2)
o = change in velocity in metres per second (m/s)
o = time taken in seconds (s)

Formula triangle for acceleration, change in velocity and change in time

 To use a formula triangle, simply cover up the quantity you wish calculate and
the structure of the equation is revealed

 Information on how to use a formula triangle can be found in Speed & velocity

Change in velocity

 The change in velocity is the difference between the initial and final velocity:

 Where:
o = change in velocity in metres per second (m/s)
o = final velocity in metres per second (m/s)
o = initial velocity in metres per second (m/s)

Speeding up & slowing down

 An object can change its velocity in several ways:

o speeding up
o slowing down
o changing direction
 Any change in an object's velocity is an acceleration
 When an object speeds up, it is accelerating
o This is positive acceleration
 When an object slows down, it is decelerating
 o This is negative acceleration
 Acceleration is positive if its direction is in the same direction as the motion of
the object

Acceleration of different objects

A rocket speeding up (accelerating) and a car slowing down (decelerating)

Worked Example

Worked Example

A Japanese bullet train decelerates at a constant rate in a straight line. The velocity of
the train decreases from 50 m/s to 42 m/s in 30 seconds.

(a) Calculate the change in velocity of the train.

(b) Calculate the deceleration of the train, and explain how your answer shows the train
is slowing down.

Answer:

Part (a)

Step 1: List the known quantities

  Initial velocity,
 Final velocity,

Step 2: Write the equation for change in velocity

Step 3: Substitute values for final and initial velocity

Part (b)

Step 1: List the known quantities

 Change in velocity,
 Time taken,

Step 2: Write the equation for acceleration

Step 3: Substitute the values for change in velocity and time

Step 4: Interpret the value for deceleration

 The answer is negative, which indicates the train is slowing down

A Japanese bullet train decelerates at a constant rate in a straight line. The velocity of
the train decreases from 50 m/s to 42 m/s in 30 seconds.

(a) Calculate the change in velocity of the train.

(b) Calculate the deceleration of the train, and explain how your answer shows the train
is slowing down.

Answer:

Part (a)

Step 1: List the known quantities

 Initial velocity,
 Final velocity,

Step 2: Write the equation for change in velocity

Step 3: Substitute values for final and initial velocity

Part (b)

Step 1: List the known quantities

 Change in velocity,
 Time taken,

Step 2: Write the equation for acceleration

Step 3: Substitute the values for change in velocity and time

Step 4: Interpret the value for deceleration

  The answer is negative, which indicates the train is slowing down

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember, the units for acceleration are metres per second squared, m/s2. In other
words, acceleration measures how much the velocity (m/s) changes every second, so
the units are metres per second per second (m/s/s).

Distance-time graphs
 A distance-time graph is used to describe the motion of an object and calculate
its speed

Distance-time graph of an object moving at a constant speed

The graph shows a moving object moving further away from its origin at a
constant speed

Constant speed on a distance-time graph

 If an object is moving at a constant speed, the distance-time graph will be

a straight line
o If the constant speed is zero, the line will be horizontal
o If the constant speed is non-zero, the line will have a gradient
 If an object has a speed of zero, the object is stationary
o The distance moved by the object over time is zero
  The gradient of a distance-time graph represents the magnitude of the
object's velocity, or its speed
o A steeper slope, or a higher gradient, represents a greater speed
o A shallower slope, or a lower gradient, represents a slower speed

Different speeds on a distance-time graph

Both of these objects are moving at a constant speed, because the lines are
straight. The steeper slope represents the faster speed and the shallower line
represents the slower speed.

Changing speed on a distance-time graph

 Often, the speed of an object is not constant

 If the speed of an object is changing, the object is accelerating
 If an object is accelerating, the distance-time graph will be a curved line
 A curve on a distance-time graph is a changing gradient
o If the gradient increases over time, the speed is increasing over time
o If the gradient decreases over time, the speed is decreasing over time

Speed of an object increasing and decreasing on a distance-time graph

Changing speeds are represented by changing slopes, or gradients. The red line
shows a decreasing gradient and represents an object slowing down, or
decelerating. The green line shows an increasing gradient and represents an
object speeding up, or accelerating.
Using distance-time graphs
 The speed of a moving object can be calculated from the gradient of the line on
a distance-time graph:
 The speed of an object can be found by calculating the gradient of a distance-
time graph

 is the change in y (distance) values

 is the change in x (time) values

Worked Example

A distance-time graph is drawn below for part of a train journey. The train is travelling at
a constant speed.
Calculate the speed of the train.
Answer:

Step 1: Draw a large gradient triangle on the graph

 The image below shows a large gradient triangle drawn with dashed lines
 and are labelled, using the units as stated on each axes
Step 2: Convert units for distance and time into standard units

 The distance travelled,

 The time taken,

Step 3: State that speed is equal to the gradient of a distance-time graph

 The gradient of a distance-time graph is equal to the speed of a moving object:

Step 4: Substitute values to calculate the speed

Worked Example

A student decides to take a stroll to the park. They find a bench in a quiet spot, take a
seat, and read a book on black holes. After some time reading, the student realises they
lost track of time and runs home.

A distance-time graph for the trip is drawn below.

(a) How long does the student spend reading the book?

(b) Which section of the graph represents the student running home?

(c) What is the total distance travelled by the student?

Answer:

Part (a)

 The student spends 40 minutes reading his book

 The flat section of the line (section B) represents an object which is stationary,
so section B represents the student sitting on the bench reading
 This section lasts for 40 minutes
Part (b)

 Section C represents the student running home

 The slope of the line in section C is steeper than the slope in section A
 This means the student was moving at a faster speed (running) in section C

Part (c)
  The total distance travelled by the student is 0.6 km
 The total distance travelled by an object is given by the final point on the line; in
this case, the line ends at 0.6 km on the distance axis

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When calculating a gradient, use the entire line where possible. Examiners tend to
award credit if they see a large gradient triangle used, so you need to actually draw
the lines directly on the graph itself!

Remember to check the units on each axis. These may not always be in standard units;
in our example, the unit of distance was km and the unit of time was minutes. Double-
check which units to use in your answer.

You could also be asked to plot a distance time graph from data given to you in a
question, or be asked to describe the motion of an object from the data given.

You can read more about the use of graphs in exams in the article Graph skills for
GCSE Physics