REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL & ASEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
➔ Process by which organisms replicate themselves, assuring continuation of their species.
➔ The two basic forms: sexual and sexual.
➔ Asexual reproduction produces an offspring genetically identical to its single parent.
➔ Sexual reproduction produces a new individual through the union of special sex cells (gametes), usually
from different parents.
➔ Most animals, including all vertebrates, reproduce sexually.
Sexual reproduction
➔ Production of new organisms by the combination of genetic information of two individuals of different
sexes.
➔ In most species the genetic information is carried on chromosomes in the nucleus of reproductive cells
called gametes, which then fuse to form a diploid zygote.
➔ The zygote develops into a new individual.
➔ Each offspring with a genetic makeup different from that of its parents.
➔ One common feature: haploid, uninucleate gametes are produced that join in fertilization to form a diploid,
uninucleate zygote.
➔ It can be either internal or external.
➔ In external fertilization, the male releases sperm over eggs that have been released by a female. This form of
fertilization is used by many invertebrates and by most fish and amphibians.
➔ In internal fertilization, the sperm unites with the egg within the body of an adult. In the vast majority of
cases, fertilization takes place within the body of the female.
Asexual reproduction
➔ Doesn't involve the fusion of gametes (sperm and egg).
➔ In this process, a single organism can produce offspring that are genetically identical to itself, meaning there
is no genetic variation introduced through sexual means.
➔ Here are a few examples of asexual reproduction in nature:
1. Binary fission – Common in bacteria, where the organism divides into two identical cells.
2. Budding – Seen in organisms like hydras and yeast, where a new individual grows out of the parent
organism.
3. Vegetative propagation – Seen in plants, where a part of the plant (like a runner, bulb, or cutting) can grow
into a new plant.
4. Fragmentation – Some organisms like starfish and flatworms can regenerate lost parts of their bodies and
create a whole new organism from a piece.
5. Spore formation – Seen in fungi, algae, and some plants, where spores are released and grow into new
individuals.
Asexual reproduction in fungi
Advantages and disadvantages
Reproduction Advantage Disadvantage
Sexual Genetic diversity Energy-intensive (mate and
Better adaptation to environment specialised reproductive cells)
Reduced risk of harmful mutations Slower reproduction
Potential for long-term survival Requires a mate
Complicated reproductive process
(courtship, mating, fertilization)
Asexual Genetic uniformity Lack of genetic diversity (clones)
Fast reproduction Limited adaptation
No need mate Increased susceptibility to
Energy-efficient diseases
Colonization of new areas Accumulation of harmful mutations
Preservation of favorable traits Overcrowding and resource strain
(high yield, pest resistance, or No need for pollination
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
Male reproductive system (side view)
Sperm
➔ Male gamete
➔ Motile and microscopic.
➔ Formed inside a pair of testes (in the scrotal sac).
➔ Temperature less than the body temperature (35-36oC) is favourable for the
formation of sperms (spermatogenesis). The scrotal sac helps to maintain this
temperature.
➔ Sperms along with the secretion of glands including the prostate gland reaches the
penis and is secreted outside.
This process is called insemination.
Female reproductive system (front view)
Ovum
➔ Female gamete.
➔ Larger than a sperm and is non motile.
➔ Specialised protective layers are seen outside the cell membrane of the ovum.
➔ A pair of ovaries situated in the abdominal cavity produces ova (oogenesis).
➔ Present from the time of birth, but only matured and released at puberty.
➔ Ovulation is the process of releasing mature ovum from the ovary.
➔ Normally one ovum matures per month.
Adaptive Features of Sperm Cells
➔ Flagellum: a tail that enables movement - provides with the motility needed to swim through
the female reproductive tract to reach and fertilize the egg. This tail’s whip-like movement
allows the sperm to navigate long distances in the fluid environment of the female.
➔ Mitochondria: many mitochondria in the midpiece of the tail - produce ATP - provides the
energy for the sperm's movement. The high energy demands of sperm swimming are met by
the mitochondria, ensuring the sperm can travel long distances.
➔ Enzymes in the Acrosome: The acrosome is a specialized vesicle located at the head of the
sperm cell - enzymes such as hyaluronidase and acrosin - help to penetrate the egg's outer
layers (zona pellucida) during fertilization. These enzymes break down the protective barriers
surrounding the egg, allowing the sperm to fuse with it.
Adaptive Features of Egg Cells
➔ Energy Stores: significant amounts of cytoplasm include energy-rich molecules like lipids
and proteins. These energy stores support the developing embryo after fertilization,
especially before implantation in the uterus. The egg provides the initial resources required
for the early stages of development.
➔ Jelly Coat: The egg cell is surrounded by a jelly-like coat that protects it - contains
substances that attract sperm -at fertilization, ensure only one sperm fertilizes it. This feature
is essential to avoid polyspermy, where multiple sperm might fertilize an egg, leading to an
abnormal number of chromosomes.
Mating
➔ Sexual arousal in the male - erection - penis becomes firm and erect .
➔ Female arousal - lining of the vagina to produce mucus - lubrication - easy for the
erect penis to enter.
➔ Copulation: penis into the female’s vagina.
➔ The sensory stimulus (sensation) - a reflex in the male - ejaculation of semen
into the top of the vagina.
Fertilisation
Pregnancy and Development
Key Structures in Fetal Development:
Key Structures in Fetal Development
Structure Description Function
Placenta Acts as the interface between the mother and the Exchange of nutrients(like
fetus, do not mix blood. glucose, amino acids) and gases,
Waste (urea, CO2) expulsion
Umbilical cord Connects the fetus to the placenta. Exchange of nutrients and gases
Contains blood vessels (two arteries and one without the blood mixing,
vein) that carry oxygen Waste expulsion
Amniotic sac Surrounds the fetus and contains amniotic fluid Protective cushion to help shield
(Medium for the fetal movement-Supports lung the fetus from physical trauma,
and muscle development, Absorption of temperature changes, and
shock,Hydration) pressure.
Allows the fetal movement,
Promote musculoskeletal
development.
Pathogens and Toxins Crossing the Placenta
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta and affect the developing fetus. These
include:
● Viruses like the Zika virus and HIV can cross the placenta and cause birth defects,
neurological damage, or infections.
● Bacteria such as Listeria and Syphilis can infect the fetus and cause complications like
stillbirth, premature birth, or congenital infection.
● Toxins such as alcohol or drugs (e.g., thalidomide, cocaine) can also cross the placenta,
leading to developmental issues like fetal alcohol syndrome, congenital deformities, or growth
restrictions
SEX HORMONES IN HUMANS
Puberty (Adolescence)
➔ A period of rapid changes from childhood to adulthood.
➔ From 11 to 19 years.
➔ Puberty relates to the physical changes that occur in individuals, thereby making them
capable of reproduction.
➔ Changes related to adolescence are more rapid in girls than in boys. This is because the
parts of brain that control physical and mental changes develop rapidly in girls.
➔ Along with the rapid physical changes, intense mental and emotional changes make
adolescence a significant period in one's life.
➔ These changes are influenced by sex hormones.
➔ Testosterone and oestrogen are central to the development of the physical traits associated
with male and female puberty.
If fertilization fails to occur (menstruation)
➔ Along with ovulation, the preparations for the growth of foetus take place in the uterus every
month.
➔ Endometrium, the inner layer of uterus thickens and more blood capillaries and glands begin to
develop.
➔ But when fertilization does not take place, all these preparations become futile.
➔ The newly formed tissues get destroyed and they peel off from the uterine wall.
➔ These tissues get eliminated through the vagina along with blood and mucus. This process is
called menstruation.
➔ Generally menstrual cycle repeats once in 28 days (21-35 days) and last for 3 – 7 days.
➔ Starts early or late, in accordance with one’s heredity, food habits, state of health or hormone
variations.
➔ Stops around 45 – 50 years of age.
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Phase Hormonal change Internal/Physical change
Menstrual Phase (Days 1–5) Oestrogen, ● Shedding of the endometrium
progesterone low ● Bleeding and cramping
Follicular Phase (Days 1–13) ● Release of follicle ● Ovarian follicles mature
stimulating hormone ● Egg released
(FSH) - oestrogen high ● Thickening of uterine lining
● Clear, stretchy cervical mucus
Ovulation Phase (Around Day ● High luteinizing ● Ovulation (LH)
14) hormone (LH) ● Mild ovulation pain
● Oestrogen levels peak ● Spotting
● More slippery, stretchy mucus
Luteal Phase (Days 15–28) ● High progesterone (for ● The uterine lining continues to thicken in
implantation) preparation for a fertilized egg.
● Low progesterone (if no ● Cervical mucus becomes thicker and less
implantation)
abundant.
● No pregnancy - corpus luteum disintegrates
- menstruation
● Premenstrual symptoms (PMS)
The Role of Hormones in Controlling the Menstrual Cycle and Pregnancy
1. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH):
● In the Menstrual Cycle:
○ FSH is produced by the pituitary gland and stimulates the follicles in the ovaries to grow and mature. It also promotes the
secretion of oestrogen from the developing follicles.
○ The rising levels of oestrogen eventually feedback to the brain to inhibit further FSH production once follicles are sufficiently
developed.
● In Pregnancy:
○ FSH levels are suppressed during pregnancy to prevent the maturation of additional follicles, as only one pregnancy is
supported at a time.
2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH):
● In the Menstrual Cycle:
○ LH is also produced by the pituitary gland. A surge in LH, triggered by high oestrogen levels from the maturing follicle,
causes ovulation (release of the egg from the follicle).
○ After ovulation, LH supports the transformation of the ruptured follicle into the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone.
● In Pregnancy:
○ Like FSH, LH is suppressed during pregnancy to prevent further ovulation.
The Role of Hormones in Controlling the Menstrual Cycle and Pregnancy
3. Oestrogen:
● In the Menstrual Cycle:
○ As the follicle matures, oestrogen levels rise. Oestrogen is crucial for the thickening of the endometrium in preparation
for possible implantation of a fertilized egg.
○ Just before ovulation, the peak in oestrogen triggers the release of LH for ovulation to occur.
● In Pregnancy:
○ Oestrogen produced by the placenta maintains the uterine lining, supports fetal growth, and helps prepare the body for
labor.
4. Progesterone:
● In the Menstrual Cycle:
○ After ovulation, the corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which further thickens the endometrium and makes it more
receptive to implantation.
○ If pregnancy doesn't occur, the corpus luteum degenerates, causing a drop in progesterone levels and triggering
menstruation.
● In Pregnancy:
○ Progesterone, produced initially by the corpus luteum and later by the placenta, is crucial for maintaining the uterine
environment by preventing uterine contractions and supporting fetal development.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Structure of flower
Pollination
➔ Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
➔ Can be same flower or different flower.
➔ Two main types of pollination:
1. Self-pollination: When pollen from the same flower or plant reaches the stigma,
fertilizing the ovule.
2. Cross-pollination: When pollen from one flower is transferred to the stigma of
another flower.
➔ Often involving external agents like wind, insects (like bees), birds, or water.
Pollination Pollinator
Insect Entomophily
Animal Zoophily
Wind Anemophily
Water Hydrophily
Bat Chiropterophily
Bird Ornithophily
Characteristics of wind pollinated and insect pollinated flowers
Anthers and Stigmas of Wind-Pollinated Flowers
Sources
https://www.britannica.com/science/reproduction-biology
https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/basics/reproduction/
https://samagra.kite.kerala.gov.in/#/textbook/page
https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/label-human-reproductive-system
https://www.britannica.com/science/gametogenesis
https://www.britannica.com/science/fertilization-reproduction
https://www.thenakedscientists.com/sites/default/files/styles/featured_image/public/media/christophersmith1_placenta
_baby_in_amnion.jpg?itok=fMhLeXHy
cambridge-igcse-biology-3rd-edition.pdf
