Week 2 Lecture Notes
Topic 1.4: Speed of Sound and Mach Number (Concept of Viscosity and Their
Effect)
1. Definition
The speed of sound is the rate at which a pressure disturbance travels through a medium. In
aerodynamics, it plays a vital role in determining flight regimes and aerodynamic behaviors.
Mach number is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of the speed of an object to
the speed of sound in the surrounding medium.
2. Detailed Theory
The speed of sound (a) in a medium depends on its thermodynamic properties and is given
by the equation:
Where:
γ (gamma) = Ratio of specific heats (Cp/Cv)
R = Specific gas constant
T = Absolute temperature of the medium
MACH NUMBER
The Mach number (M) is calculated as:
M=V/a
Where:
V = Velocity of the object
a = Speed of sound in the medium
Flight regimes based on Mach number:
- Subsonic: M < 1
- Transonic: 0.8 < M < 1.2
- Supersonic: 1.2 ≤ M < 5
- Hypersonic: M ≥ 5
3. Concept of Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that resists the relative motion between its layers. It
influences boundary layer development, flow separation, and energy losses.
In aerodynamic flows, viscosity causes shear stresses within the fluid, leading to energy
dissipation. It also affects shock wave strength and the behavior of flows at high Mach
numbers.
4. Effect of Viscosity on Speed of Sound and Mach Number
- For an ideal gas, viscosity has minimal direct effect on the speed of sound, as the equation
depends mainly on temperature.
- However, in real gases, viscosity contributes to attenuation (damping) of sound waves.
- At high Mach numbers, viscous effects can cause shock wave thickening and heating,
altering flow characteristics.
- Increased viscosity in high-temperature gases can lead to reduced aerodynamic efficiency
due to greater skin friction drag.
5. Table: Flight Regimes and Characteristics
Mach Number Range Regime Characteristics
M<1 Subsonic Smooth airflow,
compressibility effects
negligible
0.8 < M < 1.2 Transonic Mixed subsonic and
supersonic regions, shock
waves appear
1.2 ≤ M < 5 Supersonic Strong shock waves,
significant compressibility
effects
M≥5 Hypersonic High temperature effects,
chemical dissociation,
strong shocks
6. Advanced Concepts
- Real gas effects become significant at very high Mach numbers.
- The speed of sound in humid air differs from that in dry air due to changes in gas
composition.
- Viscosity increases with temperature for gases, affecting high-speed aerodynamics.
- Shock-boundary layer interaction is a critical phenomenon in supersonic/hypersonic
flows.
7. Advantages and Limitations
Advantages:
- Helps classify flight regimes
- Fundamental in aerodynamic design
- Critical for predicting compressibility effects
Limitations:
- Ideal gas relations ignore real gas behavior at extreme conditions
- Viscous effects are complex to model accurately
8. Key Points
- Speed of sound depends mainly on temperature and gas properties.
- Mach number determines aerodynamic regime.
- Viscosity indirectly influences wave propagation and flow characteristics.
- High Mach numbers require accounting for viscous heating and shock interactions.
Enhanced Theoretical Content
The speed of sound (a) is a fundamental property of a medium and is governed by its
thermodynamic state. In gases, it is derived from the equation a = sqrt(γRT), where γ is the
specific heat ratio, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. This relationship
indicates that the speed of sound increases with temperature, but is independent of
pressure in ideal gases.
The Mach number (M) represents the ratio of an object's speed to the local speed of sound
(M = V/a). This dimensionless number is essential in aerodynamics because it categorizes
flows into subsonic (M < 1), transonic (0.8 < M < 1.2), supersonic (1.2 < M < 5), and
hypersonic (M > 5) regimes. Each regime exhibits unique aerodynamic characteristics such
as compressibility effects, shock wave formation, and changes in drag behavior.
Viscosity plays a critical role in aerodynamic performance, particularly near solid
boundaries where boundary layers form. While viscosity has a negligible direct effect on the
speed of sound (which depends mainly on compressibility), it significantly influences
energy dissipation, drag, and heat transfer in high-speed flows. In high Mach number
regimes, viscous effects can cause substantial aerodynamic heating, requiring thermal
protection systems.
Historically, understanding the speed of sound and Mach number revolutionized aircraft
design. The introduction of swept wings, area ruling, and high-temperature materials were
direct responses to challenges encountered as aircraft approached and exceeded Mach 1.
These advancements continue to guide modern supersonic and hypersonic vehicle
development.
