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CHAPTER ONE
Elements of Dam Engineering
In various textbooks on hydraulic structures one can find different contents. That is only
due to different perceptions about what the hydraulic structures are. The broadest
definition is that: "all structures in contact with water”. That would include structures
such as bridges, hydraulic tunnels, docks coastal and offshore structures etc. However in
this course curriculum is limited only to hydraulic structures of interest to hydraulic and
civil engineers.
Hydraulic structures, in different forms, were built by human kind since the earliest days
of known history, in order to solve problems that could not be solved otherwise.
Hydraulic structures are as old as Civilization. There could not be developed civilization
without water management, and if one looks back, one can see that all major settled
civilizations were using water supply systems & irrigation. At first, small diversion dams
were used, there are reliable records about dam built on the Nile River before 4000BC,
which was to provide water for ancient city of Memphis.
Brief list of Hydraulic Structures are:-
- Dams , Intakes , Outlets , Spillways
- Energy Dissipaters: Stilling Basins, Plunge Pools, Flip Buckets, Ski Jumps, Aprons,
- Navigation Structures- Locks, Ship-Lifts And Inclined Plane, Inland Ports
- Pumping Stations
- Canals: Spawning Canals, Navigation and Water Conveyance Canals
- Other Conveyance Structures Like Pipelines
- Drop Structures, Culverts And Siphons
- Steel Structures Like Gates, Valves, Air Vessels, Air Vents, Silt Outlets
- Diversion Work Structures (Diversion Dams And Weirs, River Intakes, Settling
Basins,
- Fish Ladders And Passes
- Check Dams
- Hydropower Stations
- Earth Retaining Structures
- Other River Training Structures
- Bridges, Aqueducts
- Tunnels
- Irrigation Structures
- Levees And Canal Dikes
- Revetments and Breakwaters

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Even this list is not exhaustive as one can think of even more structures that could be
called as "Hydraulic". However, some of them are most important for program in civil
engineering and are dealt in this course.

1.1.1 Difference of dams to Others Civil Engineering Structures.

In a number of important regards dam is differ from all other major civil engineering
structures.
These are:-
Every dam, large or small, is quite unique; foundation geology, material
characteristics, catchment flood /hydrology etc. are each site-specific.
Dams are required to function at or close to their design loading for extended
periods.
Dams do not have a structural lifespan; they may, however, have a notional life
for accounting purposes, or a functional lifespan dictated by reservoir
sedimentation.
The overwhelming majority of dams are of earth fill, constructed from a range of natural
soils; these are the least consistent of construction materials.
Dam engineering draws together a range of disciplines, e.g. Structural and fluid
mechanics, geology and geotechnics, flood hydrology and hydraulics, to a quite unique
degree.
The engineering of dams is critically dependent upon the application of informed
engineering judgment.
Hence the dam engineer is required to synthesize design solutions which, without
compromise on safety, represent the optimal balance between technical, economic and
environmental considerations.

1.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Dams and Reservoirs.

The specific main functions /advantages of dams and reservoirs are:

√ Temporal and quantitative balancing between available water and demand.

√ Water storage for days, weeks, months, years, and over years for power
generation and sediment control

√ Water supply (municipal, industrial or community water supply, irrigation

purposes)

√ Flood control
√ Regulation/balancing of river flow (such as navigation, low flow
augmentation)

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√ Recreation and Multipurpose

The presence of a dam with its storage reservoir interferes with the natural system.

Associated to this, the main disadvantages include:

Distraction of fauna and flora in the dam valley

Interference in the landscape through dams and reservoirs
Change of ground water level
Strong influence on sediment balance
Change in water temperature
Influence on fish
1.1.3 The Common Hydraulic Structures Definitions.
Dam: is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often
creating a Reservoir.
Dike: is a stone or earthen wall constructed as a defense or as a boundary. The best
known form of dyke is a construction built along the edge of a body of water to prevent it
from flooding onto adjacent lowland.
Levee: is a natural or artificial structure, usually earthen, which parallels the course of a
river. It functions to prevent flooding of the adjoining countryside. However it also
confines the flow of the river resulting in higher and faster water flow.
Weir: is a small overflow type (designed to be overtopped) dam commonly used to
raise the level of a small river or stream. Water flows over the top of a weir, although
some weirs have sluice gates which release water at a level below the top of the weir.
Barrage: an obstruction across a river to raise water level and divert it. It has control
gates
Check Dam: is a small dam designed to reduce flow velocity and control soil erosion.
Coffer dam: is a temporary structure constructed of any material like timber, steel,
concrete, rock or earth. It is built to enclose certain work site or to divert the flow to
enable construction activity in the main river channel
1.2 Dam Structures components And Reservoir
Structure related to dams include: the dam structure, reservoir, diversion structure,
appurtenant structures such as spillways, bottom outlets, intakes and gates as well as
service road and bridges.

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Figure 1.1 components of dam structure

Reservoir: is an artificial lake created by flooding land behind a dam. Some of the
world's largest lakes are reservoirs.
Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of the reservoir
to downstream side, many spillways have gates designed to control the flow through the
spillway.
Bottom outlets (Sluice way): An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is
used to clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir side.
Diversion structure: are constructed for diverting water before the construction of dam.
This helps in keeping the river bed dry.
Service Intake: it is one component of reservoir/ Dam that is located above the dead
storage elevation. This used to pass from active storage to service place.
Service road: access for transportation way.
1.2.2 Types of Reservoirs
A reservoir is a large, artificial lake created by constructing a dam across a river. Broadly
speaking, any water pool or a lake may be termed a reservoir. However, the term
reservoir in water resources engineering is used in a restricted sense for a comparatively
large body of water stored on the upstream of a dam constructed for this purpose. Thus a
dam and a reservoir exist together. The discharge in a river generally varies considerably
during different periods of a year. Generally, based on quantity of function reservoir can
be classified; a single-purpose reservoir and a multipurpose reservoir.
 A single-purpose reservoir: a reservoir serves only one purpose.
 A multipurpose reservoir: if it serves more than one purpose.
The various purposes served by a multipurpose reservoir include
irrigation
muni Industrial water supply
flood control

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hydropower
Navigation
Recreation
development of fish and wild life
soil conservation
pollution control and
Mosquito control.
Depending upon the purpose served, the reservoirs may be broadly classified into five
types:
A. Storage (conservation) Reservoirs D. Distribution Reservoir
B. Flood control Reservoirs E. Balancing reservoir
C. Multipurpose Reservoirs
A. Storage reservoirs: Storage reservoirs are also called conservation reservoirs
because they are used to conserve water. Storage reservoirs are constructed to. Store the
water in the rainy season and to release it later when the river flow is low store reservoirs
are usually constructed for irrigation, the municipal water supply and hydropower.
Although the storage reservoirs are constructed for storing water for various purposes,
incidentally they also help in moderating the floods and reducing the flood damage to
some extent on the downstream. However, they are not designed as flood control
reservoirs.
B. Flood control reservoirs: A flood control reservoir is constructed for the purpose
of flood control It protects the areas lying on its downstream side from the damages due
to flood. However, absolute protection from extreme floods is not economically feasible.
A flood control reservoir reduces the flood damage, and it is also known as the flood
mitigation reservoir. Sometimes, it is called flood protection reservoir. In a flood control
reservoir, the floodwater is discharged downstream till the outflow reaches the safe
capacity of the channel downstream. When the discharge exceeds the safe capacity. The
excess water is stored in the reservoir. The stored water is subsequently released when
the inflow to reservoir decreases. Care is, however, taken that the discharge in the
channel downstream, including local inflow, does not exceed its safe capacity. A flood
control reservoir is designed to moderate the flood and not to conserve water. However,
incidentally some storage is also done during the period of floods. Flood control
reservoirs have relatively large sluice-way capacity to permit rapid drawdown before or
after the occurrence of a flood.
C. Multipurpose Reservoirs: A multipurpose reservoir is designed and constructed
to serve two or more purposes. Most of the reservoirs are designed as multipurpose
reservoirs to store water for irrigation and hydropower, and also to effect flood control.
D. Distribution Reservoir: A distribution reservoir is a small storage reservoir to
tide over the peak demand of water for municipal water supply or irrigation. The

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distribution reservoir is helpful in permitting the pumps to work at a uniform rate. It

stores water during the period of lean demand and supplies the same during the period of
high demand. As the storage is limited, it merely helps in distribution of water as per
demand for a day or so and not for storing it for a long period. Water is pumped from a
water source at a uniform rate throughout the day for 24 hours but the demand varies
from time to time. During the period when the demand of water is less than the pumping
rate, the water is stored in the distribution reservoir. On the other hand, when the demand
of water is more than the pumping rate, the distribution reservoir is used for supplying
water at rates greater than the pumping rate. Distribution reservoirs are rarely used for the
supply of water for irrigation. These are mainly used for municipal water supply.
E. Balancing reservoir: A balancing reservoir is a small reservoir constructed d/s
of the main reservoir for holding water released from the main reservoir.
Whatever may be the use of a reservoir, its most important function is to store water
during floods and to release it later. The storage capacity of a reservoir is, therefore, its
most important characteristics. The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends
upon the topography of the site and the height of dam. To determine the available storage
capacity of a reservoir up to a certain level of water, engineering surveys are usually
conducted.
For accurate determination of the capacity, a topographic survey of the reservoir area is
usually conducted, and a contour map of the area is prepared. A contour plan of the area
is prepared to a scale of 1 cm = 100 m or 150 m with a contour interval of 1 to 3 m,
depending upon the size of the reservoir. The storage capacity and the water spread area
at different elevations can be determined from the contour map, as explained below.
1.2.3 Available Storage Capacity of a Reservoir
Whatever may be the use of a reservoir, its most important function is to store water
during floods and to release it later. The storage capacity of a reservoir is, therefore, its
most important characteristics. The available storage capacity of a reservoir depends
upon the topography of the site and the height of dam. To determine the available storage
capacity of a reservoir up to a certain level of water, engineering surveys are usually
conducted.
The storage capacity and the water spread area at different elevations can be determined
from the contour map, as explained below.
A. Area- Elevation Curve: from the contour plan, the water spread of the reservoir at
any elevation is determined by measuring the area enclosed by the corresponding
contour. Generally, a planimeter is used for measuring the area. An area- elevation
curve is then drawn between the surface area as abscissa and the elevation as ordinate
as shown below.

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Figure 1.2 Area – Elevation curve

B. Elevation-Capacity Curve: The storage capacity of the reservoir at any elevation is
determined from the water spread area at various elevations. The following formulae
are commonly used to determine the storage capacity (i.e. storage volumes).
1. Trapezoidal formula: According to the trapezoidal formula, the storage volume
between two successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by:
h
Δ V = ( A 1+ A 2) … … … … … … … … … … … … …(1.1)
2
Where h is the contour height interval.
Therefore, the total volume V of the storage is given by;
V = V1 + ΔV2 +Δ V3 +............. = ∑ ∆V
h
V = [ A 1 +2 A 2+ 2 A 2+...............+2 An−1 + An ]
2
(1.2)
Where n is the total number of areas.

2. Cone formula: According to the cone formula, the storage volume between two
Successive contours of areas A1 and A2 is given by:
h
Δv 1= ¿……………………………………. 1.3
3
The total volume V is given by: V = ∆V1 + V2 + V3 +............. = ∑ ∆V
(1.4)

3. Prismoidal formula: According to the prismoidal formula, the storage volume

between three Successive contours of areas is given by: ∆ v 1=( A 1+ 4∗A 2+ A 3)
(1.5)
The total volume is given by:
h
V = [( A 1+ An)+ 4( A 2+ A 4+ A 6 +....)+2( A 3+ A 5+...)] (1.6)
3

Where:- A3, A5, etc are the areas with odd numbers: A2, A4, A6, etc. are the areas with
Even numbers A1 and An are respectively, the first and the last area.

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The prismoidal formula is applicable only when there are odd numbers of areas (i.e. n
should be an odd number). In the case of even number of areas, the volume up to the last
but one area is determined by the prismoidal formula, and that of the last segment is
determined by the trapezoidal formula.
4. Simpson’s 1/3 rule method:

¿ A +4 A m + A i+ 1
∆ S i=¿∆hi ¿ 1.7
6
Where Am= mean area between Ai & Ai+1
5. Simpson’s 3/8 rule method

∆ Si=∆ hi ( 38 A + 98 A + 98 A + 38 A )
1 2 3 4 1.8

Where ∆h: depth magnitude between interpolation points

A1, A2, A3 and A4: are planar areas at interpolation points.

Storage Volume from cross-sectional areas

In the absence of adequate contour maps, the storage volume can be computed from the
cross-sectional areas of the river. Cross-sectional areas are obtained from the cross-
sections of the river taken upstream of the dam up to the u/s end of the reservoir. The
volume is determined from the prismoidal formula,
V = [(A1 + An) +4(A2 + A4 +.......) + 2 (A3 + A5 + .....)]
1.9
Where A1, A2 etc. are the area of the cross-section of the river upon the full reservoir
level and d is the distance between the sections. The formula is applicable for odd
number of sections.

Combined diagram: it is the usual practice to plot both the elevation are curve and the
elevation-storage curve on the same paper (Fig. 1.4). The reader should carefully note the
abscissa marking as the areas and volumes increase in the opposite directions:

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Figure 1-4 Area - Elevation-Capacity Curve Figure 1-5 Reservoir-Capacity

Contour View
Submerged area: In addition to finding out the capacity of a reservoir, the contour map
of the reservoir can also be used to determine the land and property which would be
submerged when the reservoir is filled up to various elevations. It would enable one to
estimate the compensation to be paid to the owners of the submerged property and land.
The time schedule, according to which the areas should be evacuated, as the reservoir is
gradually filled, can also be drawn.
Example 3.1 A reservoir has the following areas enclosed by contours at various
elevations. Determine the capacity of the reservoir between elevations of 200.00 to
300.00.

Elevation 200 220 240 260 280 300

Area of Contour (km2) 150 175 210 270 320 400

1.2.4 Components of dam and reservoir

A large number of terms are commonly used for reservoir planning. These terms are
defined below.
 Full reservoir level (FRL): The full reservoir level (FRL) is the highest water level
to which the water surface will rise during normal operating conditions. The effective
storage of the reservoir is computed up to the full reservoir level. The FRI is the
highest level at which water is intended to be held for various uses without any
passage of water through the spil1way. In case of dams without spillway gates, the
FRL is equal to the crest level of the spillway [Fig 1-6(a)]. However, if the spillway
is gated, the FRL is equal to the level of the top of the gates (Fig. 1-6 (b)).

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The full reservoir level is also called the full tank level (FTL) or the normal pool level
(NPL).

 Normal conservation level (NCL): It is the highest level of the reservoir at which
water is intended to be stored for various uses other than flood. The normal
conservation level is different from the FRL as the latter may include a part of the
flood. However, if there is no storage for flood up to FRL, the normal conservation
level and the FRL become identical.
 Maximum water level (MWL): The maximum water level is the maximum level to
which the water surface will rise when the design flood passes over the spillway. The
maximum water level is higher than the full reservoir level so that some surcharge
storage is available between the two levels to absorb flood. The maximum water level
is also called the maximum pool level (MPL) or maximum flood level (MFL).
 Minimum pool level (MPL): The minimum pool level is the lowest level up to
which the water is withdrawn from the reservoir under ordinary conditions. The
minimum pool level generally corresponds to the elevation of the lowest outlet (or
sluiceway) of the dam. However, in the case of a reservoir for hydroelectric power,
the minimum pool level is fixed after considering the minimum working head
required for the efficient working of turbines. The storage below the minimum pool
level is not useful and is called the dead storage.
 Useful storage: The volume of water stored between the full reservoir level (FRL)
and the minimum pool level is called the useful storage. The useful storage is

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available for various purposes of the reservoir. In most of the reservoirs, the useful
storage is the conservation storage of the reservoir. The useful storage is also known
as the live storage.
 Surcharge storage: The surcharge storage is the volume of water stored above the
full reservoir level up to the maximum water level. The surcharge storage is
uncontrolled storage which exists only when the river is in flood and the flood water
is passing over the spillway. This storage is available only for the absorption of flood
and it cannot be used for other purposes.
 Dead storage: The volume of water held below the minimum pool level is called the
dead storage. The dead storage is not useful, as it cannot be used for any purpose
under ordinary operating conditions.
 Bank storage: If the banks of the reservoir are porous, some water is temporarily
stored by them when the reservoir is full. The stored water in banks later drains into
the reservoir when the water level in the reservoir falls. Thus the banks of the
reservoir act like mini reservoirs. The bank storage increases the effective capacity of
the reservoir above that indicated by the elevation-storage curve
 Valley storage: The volume of water held by the natural river channel in its valley up
to the top of its banks before the construction of a reservoir is called the valley
storage. The valley storage depends upon the cross section of the river, the length of
the river and its water level. The net increase in the storage capacity after the
construction of a reservoir is equal to the total capacity of the reservoir up to FRL
minus the valley storage. However, this distinction between the net storage capacity
and the total storage capacity is not of much significance in a conservation or storage
reservoir where the main concern is the total water available for different purposes.
But in the case of a flood control reservoir, the difference between the net storage
capacity and the total storage capacity is quite important because the effective storage
for flood control is reduced due to the valley storage. The effective storage is equal to
the sum of the useful storage and the surcharge storage minus the valley storage in
the case of a flood control reservoir.
 Yield from a reservoir: Yield is the volume of water which can be withdrawn from
a reservoir in a specified period of time. The time period for the estimation of yield is
selected according to the size of the reservoir. It may be a day for a small reservoir
and a month or a year for a large reservoir. The yield is usually expressed as Mha-
m/year or Mm3/year for large reservoirs.
 Safe yield (Firm yield): Safe yield is the maximum quantity of water which can be
supplied from a reservoir in a specified period of time during a critical dry year.
Generally, the lowest recorded natural flow of the river for a number of years is taken
as the critical dry period for determining the safe yield..

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 Secondary yield: Secondary yield is the quantity of water which is available during
the period of high flow in the rivers when the yield is more than the safe yield. The
hydropower developed from secondary yield is sold to industries at cheaper rates.
However, the power commitment for domestic supply should be based on the firm
yield.
 Average yield: The average yield is the arithmetic average of the firm yield and the
secondary yield over a long period of time.
 Design yield: The design yield is the yield adopted in the design of a reservoir. The
design yield is usually fixed after considering the urgency of the water needs and the
amount of risk involved. The design yield should be such that the demands of the
consumers are reasonably met with, and at the same time, the storage required is not
unduly large. Generally, a reservoir for the domestic water supply is planned on the
basis of firm yield. On the other hand, a reservoir for irrigation may be planned with
a value of design yield equal to 12 times the firm yield because more risk can be
taken for the irrigation water supply than for domestic water supply.
1.3 Classification of Dams
Dams may be classified into a number of different categories, depending upon the
purpose of the classification. It is convenient to consider three broad classifications:
Dams are classified according to their use, their hydraulic design, or the materials of
which they are constructed.

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1.3.1. Classification According to Use

Dams may be classified according to the broad function they serve, such as storage,
diversion, or detention. Refinements of these classifications can also be made by
considering the specific functions involved.
I. Storage dams: are constructed to impound water during periods of surplus supply
for use during periods of deficient supply. These periods may be seasonal, annual,
or longer. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for use in the dry summer
season. Storage dams may be further classified according to the purpose of the
storage, such as water supply, recreation, fish and wildlife, hydroelectric power
generation, irrigation, etc.

Figure 1-7 small earth fill storage Figure 1-8 concrete gravity structure

II. Diversion dams: are ordinarily constructed to provide head for carrying water into
ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. They are used for irrigation
developments, for diversion from a live stream to an off-channel-location storage
reservoir, for municipal and industrial uses, or for any combination of the above.
Figure 1-8 shows a typical small diversion dam.

Figure 1-9 Small diversion dam

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III. Detention dams: are constructed to retard flood runoff and minimize the effect of
sudden floods. Detention dams consist of two main types. In one type, the water is
temporarily stored and released through an outlet structure at a rate that does not
exceed the carrying capacity of the channel downstream. In the other type, the
water is held as long as possible and allowed to seep into pervious banks or into the
foundation. The latter type is sometimes called a water-spreading dam or dike
because its main purpose is to recharge the underground water supply. Some
detention dams are constructed to trap sediments; these are often called debris
dams. Although it is less common on small projects than on large developments,
dams are often constructed to serve more than one purpose. Where multiple
purposes are involved, a reservoir allocation is usually made to each distinct use.
A common multipurpose project combines storage, flood control, and recreational
uses.

1.3.2 Classification by Hydraulic Design

Dams can be classified as overflow or non-overflow dams, and may also rigid and none
rigid dam classification.
Overflow dams: are designed to carry discharge over their crests or through spillways
along the crest. Concrete is the most common material used for this type of dam.
Non-overflow dams: are those designed not to be overtopped. This type of design
extends the choice of materials to include earth fill and rock fill dams. Often the two
types are combined to form a composite structure consisting of, for example, an overflow
concrete gravity dam with earth fills dikes

Rigid and None Rigid Dams: rigid dam are those which are constructed of rigid
materials like masonry, concrete, steel, timber, etc while non-rigid dams are constructed
of earth and rock-fill.
1.3.3 Classification by Materials
Generally dam constructed by these materials; earth, rock, steel, masonry, timber and
concrete.
1. Earth dams: are made of soil that is pounded down solidly.
2. Hydraulic Fill Dams: are suitable in valleys of soft material and are constructed
by pumping soft material duly consolidated up to moderated heights up to 30m. A
hydraulic fill is an embankment or other fill in which the materials are deposited
in place by a flowing stream of water, with the deposition being selective.
Gravity, coupled with velocity control, is used to effect the selected deposition of
the material.
3. Rock fill dams: are formed of loose rocks and boulders piled in the river bed.

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4. Steel dams: these are not used for major works. Today, steel dam are used as
temporary coffer dams needed for the construction of permanent dams. Steel
coffer dams are usually reinforced with timber or earth fill.
5. Timber dams: these are short lived, since in a few years time, rotting sets in.
Their life is not more than 30 to 40 years and must have regular maintenance
during that time.
6. Masonry dams: are more durable and solid than earth and rock dams. They can
be constructed on any dam site, where there is natural foundation strong enough
to bear the great weight of the dam. They designed as solid and hollow gravity
dam.
7. Concrete dams: are requiring processed natural materials of suitable quantity and
quality for aggregate and for meeting other such low-level needs.
1.4 Embankment dam types and characteristics

The embankment dam can be defined as a dam constructed from natural materials
excavated or obtained close by. Embankment dams can be classified in broad terms as
being earth fill or rock fill dams. The division between the two embankment variants is
not absolute, many dams utilizing fill materials of both types within appropriately
designated internal zones.
1. Earth fill embankments: An embankment may be categorized as an earth fill
dam if compacted soils account for over 50% of the placed volume of material.
An earth fill dam is constructed primarily of selected engineering soils compacted
uniformly and intensively in relatively thin layers and at a controlled moisture content.
Outline sections of some common variants relatively thin layers and at a controlled
moisture content. Outline sections of some common variants of the earth fill
embankment are illustrated in Fig. 1-10

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Figure 1-10 Principal variants of earth fill and earth fill–rock fill embankment dams
(Values of m are indicative only)

1. Rock fill embankments: In the rock fill embankment the section includes a
discrete impervious element of compacted earth fill or a slender concrete or bituminous
membrane. The designation ‘rockfill embankment’ is appropriate where over 50% of the
fill material may be classified as rockfill, i.e. coarse-grained frictional material. Modern
practice is to specify a graded rockfill, heavily compacted in relatively thin layers by
heavy plant. The construction method is therefore essentially similar to that for the
earthfill embankment. The terms ‘zoned rockfill dam’ or ‘earthfill–rockfill dam’ are used
to describe rockfill embankments incorporating relatively wide impervious zones of
compacted earth fill.
Rock fill embankments employing a thin upstream membrane of asphaltic
concrete, reinforced concrete or other manufactured material are referred
to as ‘decked rockfill dams. Representative sections for rock fill
embankments of different types are illustrated in Fig.1.11.

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Figure 1-11 Principal variants of rock fill embankment dams (values of m are indicative
only)

1.5 Concrete dam types and characteristics

1. Concrete gravity dam: is entirely dependent upon its own mass for stability.
The gravity profile is essentially triangular, with the outline geometry indicated
on Fig.1.11 to ensure stability and to avoid overstressing of the dam or its
foundation. Some gravity dams are gently curved in plan for aesthetic or other
reasons, and without placing any reliance upon arch action for stability. Where a
limited degree of arch action is deliberately introduced in design, allowing a
rather slimmer profile, the term arched or arch-gravity dam may be employed.

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Figure 1-12 Example of concrete Gravity dam (Shasta Dam impounds the Sacramento
River in northern California)
2. Buttress dams:
In structural concept the buttress dam consists of a continuous upstream face supported at
regular intervals by downstream buttresses. The solid head or massive buttress dam, as
illustrated by Fig.1.13 is the most prominent modern variant of the type, and may be
considered for conceptual purposes as a lightened version of the gravity dam

Figure 1-13 Profile of buttress dam (Lake Tahoe Dam impounds the Truckee
River in northern California)

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3. Arch dams:
The arch dam has a considerable upstream curvature. Structurally it functions primarily
as a horizontal arch, transmitting the major portion of the water load to the abutments or
valley sides rather than to the floor of the valley. A relatively simple arch, i.e. with
horizontal curvature only and a constant upstream radius, is shown in Fig. 1.14 It is
structurally more efficient than the gravity or buttress dam, greatly reducing the volume
of concrete required. Abutment stability is critical to the structural integrity and safety of
both the cupola and the simple arch.

Figure 1-14 Simple of Arch dams (Monticello Dam impounds Putah Creek west of
Sacramento, California

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1.6 Dam Site Assessment and Investigation

Most failures of dams are due to lack of appreciation of how the particular dam site
would react to the superposition of the dam and reservoir. It is therefore essential that a
detailed site investigation takes place and the results are appropriately used by Engineers.

1.6.1. Parties Involved In Dam Engineering

Parties directly involved in engineering of dam activities are:
Owner: public or private organization.
Provision of financial resources
Establishment of general objectives
Consulting Engineer:
Planning and design
Construction supervision
Contractor for civil works:
Construction of required infrastructure
Construction of civil works
Assembly of equipments
1.6.2 Phases of Engineering Activities
Before a specific project is implemented and planned in a basin, a MASTER PLAN for
the use of water resources in the basin has to be established. Usually the site investigation
and planning activity comprises of hydraulic engineer, hydrologist, civil engineer,

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surveyor, geologist (or hydro geologist), and sociologist (sometimes) with whom the
hydraulic engineer is the team leader. The following sequences of activities are focused
on a particular dam that is part of the proposed master plan development.
A. Prior to construction:
 Preliminary studies;-
Collection and evaluation of existing data
Field trips- reconnaissance of dam site and reservoir area, downstream
area
Preliminary dam design including selection of type, main dimensions,
approximate site, costs, etc
 Feasibility studies;-
Detailed investigation of site conditions
Final selection of site
Final selection of dam type, main dimensions, lay out
 Basic design;-
Completion of detailed site investigations
Detailed design, cost estimates construction schedules,
Development of:
Basic report
Tender documents for the construction of civil works (drawings,
specifications, general and special contract conditions)
B. During Construction:
 Detailed (construction execution design);-
Stepwise detail of dam design a head of construction
Site investigations oriented towards construction
 Construction activities;-
Preliminary installation of contractor at site
Construction of required infrastructure (road, camp, plant, water and
energy supply, etc)
River diversion
Construction of dam and associated structures
 Construction and assembly supervision
 Commissioning and operation manuals
Preparation of manuals for testing, monitoring and operation of
equipment.
Maintenance
C. After construction:
 Monitoring, surveillance, operation

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Reading of instruments, evaluation of results.

Planning of operation.
Execution of operation activities
1.6.3 Collection and Evaluation of Basic Data
In order to carry out reliable dam engineering activities there are major aspects that
could be regarded as basic ‘input’ data that must be carefully studied. Topography and
geomorphology, geology and hydrogeology, metrology and climate, hydrology and
hydraulics are among those.
A. Topographic survey:
No engineering work can be done without topographic maps. Most of the countries in the
world have ready-made maps for all or most of the area up to certain scale (it is usually
1:10,000 in Ethiopia.

B. Geological and Geotechnical Investigations:

Geological and geotechnical investigations of dam site selected for detailed evaluation is
directed to determination of geological structure, stratigraphy, faulting, foliation and
jointing, and to establishing ground and groundwater conditions adjacent to the dam site,
including the abutments.
C. Hydrogeology:
is especial branch of geology that deals with interaction of water and rock/soil that
determines groundwater seepage paths and connections, mechanical and chemical
actions of water on geological formations, Inter-relation of different hydrogeological
formations (barriers, conductors, anticlines, synclines ...etc). and explorations like water
permeability tests, piezometric measurements, marking and tracing groundwater
seepage paths.
D. Metrology and Climatology:
Metrology and climate has to be studied for two main reasons:
One is backing up of the hydrological data analysis. Studying precipitation and
temperature distributions, humidity and moisture content (of air and soil) can help a great
deal in determining flow regimes, supporting necessary considerations to obtain reliable

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hydrological data. It is also essential for the determination of PMF through determination
and application of PMP.
Other is to help making decisions up on construction schedules and methods by analysis
of temperature distributions, air humidity, precipitations, winds, solar radiations, etc.
With those data carefully studied scheduling of special phases can be determined, e.g.
storing aggregates for pre-cooling purposes, for concrete placement, placing materials
during periods without (or not intensive) precipitations or during appropriate (acceptable)
temperatures.
E. Hydrological Aspects and Related Hydraulic Aspects: River discharge
serious: is variation of discharges in time at a given section on a river (preferably
at sections of interest). Its importance is:
Determination of availability of water
Study of discharge regulation by use of reservoir
Determination of production capabilities for different purposes
(hydropower, irrigation, water supply, etc).

1.6.4 Stages in Project Planning and Implementation

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Figure 1-16 Stages in dam site appraisal and project development (P.
Novak, 2001)
1.7 Selection of Type and Site of Dams
During the early stages of planning and design, selection of the site and the type of dam
should be carefully considered, and it is only in exceptional circumstances that only One
type of dam or appurtenant structure is suitable for a given dam site. The final choice of
the type of dam is based on a comparison of the costs to construct the various dam types
studied.
1.7.1 Selection of Different Types of Dams.
The engineer should proceed on the premise that every dam site is unique. Many factors
may affect the selection of type of dam. The main factors are:-
A. Topography.-
Topographic considerations include the surface configuration of the dam site and of the
reservoir area and accessibility to the site and to construction materials. Topography, in
large measure, dictates the first choice of the type of dam. A narrow stream flowing
between high, rocky walls would naturally suggest a rock fill or concrete overflow dam.
On the other hand, low, rolling plains would suggest an earth fill dam. Intermediate
conditions might suggest other choices, such as a composite structure. The point is that
topography is of major significance in choosing the dam type. Topography may also have
an important influence on the selection of appurtenant structures. For example, if there
are natural saddles, it may be possible to locate a spillway through a saddle. If the
reservoir rim is high compared with the dam height, and it is unbroken, a chute or tunnel
spillway might be necessary. The spillway considerations can influence the type of dam.

In a deep, steep-walled canyon, it might be more

economical to construct a concrete dam with an overflow
spillway than to provide a spillway for a rock fill dam.
In general terms for:
V shaped valleys – concrete dams:
Wide U shaped valleys with mild lateral slopes –
earth or rock fill dams (or RCC – roller
compacted concrete gravity dam).
The shape of cross section is shown below the figure 1-17.

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Figure 1-17 valley shape (forms)

B. Geology and Foundation Conditions.
The suitability of the various types of rock and soil as foundation and construction
materials is geologic questions that must be considered. The foundation geology at a dam
site often dictates the type of dam suitable for that site. The strength, thickness, and
inclination of strata; permeability; fracturing; and faulting are all important
considerations in selecting the dam type. Some of the different foundations commonly
encountered are discussed below.
 Rock Foundations:
Competent rock foundations, which are free of significant geologic defects, have
relatively high shear strengths, and are resistant to erosion and percolation, offer few
restrictions as to the type of dam that can be built upon them.
 Gravel Foundations:
Gravel foundations, if well compacted, are suitable for earth fill or rock fill dams.
Because gravel foundations are frequently subjected to water percolation at high rates,
special precautions must be taken to provide adequate seepage control or effective water
cutoffs or seals.
 Silt or Fine Sand Foundations:
Silt or fine sand foundations can be used for low concrete gravity dams and earth fill
dams if properly designed, but they are generally not suitable for rock fill dams.
 Clay Foundations:
Clay foundations can be used for the support of earth fill dams, but requires relatively flat
embankment slopes because of relatively lower foundation shear strengths. Clay
foundations under dams can also consolidate significantly.
 Non-uniform Foundations.-
Occasionally, situations occur where reasonably uniform foundations of any of the types
described above cannot be found and where a non-uniform foundation of rock and soft
material must be used if the dam is to be built. Nevertheless, such conditions can often
counterbalanced by special design features. Even dam sites that are not highly unusual
present special problems requiring the selection of appropriate treatment by experienced
engineers.

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C. Materials Available: Materials for dams of various types that may

sometimes be available at or near the site.

D. Hydrology:
There is a close relationship between the hydrologic and economic factors governing the
choice of the type of dam and appurtenant structures. Stream flow characteristics and
precipitation may appreciably affect the cost of construction by influencing the treatment
and diversion of water and extending the construction time. Where large tunnels are
required for diversion, conversion of the tunnels to tunnel spillways may provide the
most economical spillway alternative.
E. Spillway size and location:
A spillway is a vital appurtenance of a dam. Frequently, its size and type and the natural
restrictions in its location are the controlling factors in the choice of the type of dam.
Spillway requirements are dictated primarily by the runoff and stream flow
characteristics, independent of site conditions or type or size of the dam. The selection of
specific spillway types should be influenced by the magnitudes of the floods to be passed.
F. Seismicity (Earthquake Risk):
Finite element methods now make possible the analysis of the behavior of dams under
dynamic loading. A rock fill dam provided with filters, material from which could move
into and seal cracks in the core material, appear to be one of the safest type in earthquake
regions. As another option a gravity dam can be built as an assembly of large concrete
blocks separated from one another by laterally by gravel filling in the joints: this should
permit relative movements of parts of the dam.
G. Availability of Technical skills:
At many sites neither skilled contractor nor artisans are available. This can preclude the
adoption of dams that require intricate framework or very high quality concrete. The
embankment type dams or a masonry gravity dam may then prove most suitable.
H. Cost effectiveness:
Site conditions naturally influence the cost of various types of dam. For a very high dam,
for instance, the cost may be high compared with concrete dams. For concrete dams costs
for external spillway can be saved in case of spillway located at the dam crest. However,

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standard prices of earth and rock fill materials in the past have not risen as much as those
of mass concrete dams.
I. Time and Money:
Time and money may be unavailable for sophisticated investigation and design, like arch
dams. Embankment dams can be continuously constructed to reduce construction time
with high degree of mechanization.
J. Environment and Public Opinion:
One large dam was proposed as central core rock fill dam. Core material was available
only in thin beds and to obtain sufficient would despoil a very large area of beautiful
land. Public opinion was a major factor in the adoption of a thin arch dam – despite
difficulties with the foundation.
K. Height of the Dam:
Earthen dams are usually not provided for heights more than 30m or so. Hence, for
greater heights, gravity dams are generally preferred

1.7.2 Selection of Dam Site

The selection of site for constructing a dam should be governed by the following
factors:
Suitable foundation: (as determined in the previous article) must be available.)
For economy: the length of the dam should be as small as possible, and for a
given height, it should store the maximum volume of water.

Figure1-18 Configuration of contours for a suitable site.

The general bed level at dam site should preferably be higher than that of the river
basin.

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The suitable site for the spillway should be available in the near vicinity. If the
spillway is to be combined with the dam, the width of gorge should be such as to
accommodate both. The best dam site is one, in which a narrow deep gorge is
separated from the flank by a hillock with its surface above the dam. If such a site
is available, the spillway can be located separately in flank, and the main valley
spanned by an earthen or similar dam.
Material required for the construction should be easily available, locally or in the
near vicinity, so that the cost of transporting them is as low as possible.
The reservoir basin should be reasonably water-tight. The stored water should be
not escape out through its side walls and bed.
The valley of land and property submerged by the proposed dam should be as low
as possible.
The dam site should be easily accessible, so that it can be economically connected
to important towns and cities by rails, roads, etc
Site for establishing labour colonies and a healthy environment should be
available in the near vicinity

1.8. Dam free Board

Dam Freeboard:- It is the vertical distance between maximum water level (still water)
and dam crest. Freeboard Allowance Freeboard protects dams from overflow caused by
wind-induced tides and waves. Provision of a freeboard is required to avoid overtopping
(damages, destruction) of dam due to wind set-up and wind generated waves. The
freeboard may have several components:

 Rise in reservoir level due to flood routing (flood surcharge)

 Seiche effects
 Wind set-up of the water surface
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 Wave action
 Run-up of waves on the dam

The last four components are often considered as the freeboard proper, or wave
freeboard. In embankment dams the total freeboard must also include an allowance for
the settlement of the dam and foundation.

Seiche effects, periodic undulation of reservoirs, although in big reservoirs reach up to

0.5 m (Thomas 1976), are usually neglected particularly in medium sized reservoirs.

A first step in wave height determinations is a study of available wind records to

determine velocities and related durations and directions. Three basic considerations are
generally used in establishing freeboard allowance. These are wave characteristics, wind
setup, and wave run-up.

Wind set-up (wind tide): When wind blows over a water surface, it exerts a horizontal
stress on the water, driving it in the direction of the wind and resulting in the piling up of
the water at one end of the reservoir. This effect is called “wind tide” or “wind set-up.”
The wind set-up is determined by Zuider Zee formula,

Where S is the wind set-up (m or ft), UA is the wind velocity (km/h or mph), F is the
fetch (km or miles) and D is average water depth along fetch line (m or ft). Wind-stress
factor UΔ (adjusted wind speed, in mph)

Fetch is continuous area of water over which wind blows in a constant direction.
Referring to Figure 6, the fetch is determined from;

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F = fetch = Σfi/9

Wave run-up, Rs, is the vertical height above the still-water level and is related to the
wave height in non-dimensional form as

Where Rs is run up (ft); Hs (ft); Θ = angle of inclination of slope with horizontal; and LO
is wave length, given by

(Further, for freeboard determination, Advanced Dam Engineering (Jansen, 1988)

page.90 – 96 should be referred)

The probability of an extreme wind coinciding with the maximum flood level in the
reservoir is usually very small, and thus it may be deemed unnecessary to superimpose all
the extreme conditions for freeboard determination, particularly in the case of concrete
dams. Equally, it is a matter of engineering judgment of possible damage from some
water passing over the dam and the cost of a large freeboard for a wave run-up which will
ultimately determine the adopted freeboard value.

Generally,

Freeboard = wind set-up (wind tide) + run-up of significant waves

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