Physics Notes
Physics Notes
ORG
CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS (0625)
THEORY
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Area
1. Motion, Forces and Energy The area of a square with sides 1 cm long is 1 square
centimetre (1 cm²).
Area formula: area = length × breadth.
1.1. Physical Quantities and Measurement SI unit of area: square metre (m²), which is the area of a
Techniques square with sides 1 m long.
Length
Unit of length: metre (m) Volume is the amount of space occupied.
1 decimetre (dm) = 10⁻¹ m Unit of volume: cubic metre (m³).
1 centimetre (cm) = 10⁻² m Commonly used unit for volume: cubic centimetre (cm³).
1 millimetre (mm) = 10⁻³ m Volume of a cylinder: V = πr2 h
1 micrometre (μm) = 10⁻⁶ m A measuring cylinder can measure the volume of a liquid.
1 nanometre (nm) = 10⁻⁹ m Ensure the cylinder is upright and the eye is at bottom level
of the meniscus.
Multiples for large distances:
Time
1 kilometre (km) = 10³ m
1 gigametre (Gm) = 10⁹ m Unit of time: second (s).
Many length measurements are made with rulers/meter Time-measuring devices use oscillations.
rule Choose a timer that is precise enough for the task (e.g., a
stopwatch for the pendulum period or a millisecond timer
For any length less than a meter, we use a tape measure for measuring the speed of sound).
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For two vectors, FX and FY, at right angles: Distance is a length a body travels between two points. It is
a scalar quantity.
The magnitude of the resultant Displacement is similar to distance but as it is a vector
quantity, direction is also considered.
F = FX2 + FY2
tan θ = FY
FX
At rest ( BC).
Constant speed (AB and CD)
Non-Constant Speed
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Acceleration
Displacement
T ime with a constant speed of 25 m/s.
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X 2 −X 1
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In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper due
to air resistance.
In a vacuum, both fall at the same rate.
Air resistance has a greater effect on light bodies compared
to heavy bodies.
Air resistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low
speeds.
Rearranging gives:
v = u + at (Equation 1)
Second Equation
For an object moving with constant acceleration, its
average speed equals half the sum of its initial and final
speeds:
u+v
Average speed = 2
If (s) is the distance moved in time (t), then: When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at a
s terminal velocity.
Average speed = t Terminal velocity depends on the object's size, shape, and
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Explanation: Gravitational Field
Initial Phase: When the parachutist jumps out of the plane, Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in contact
they experience free fall. During this phase, their velocity with the Earth to fall towards it.
increases steadily due to the acceleration of gravity Gravitational field strength (g) is the force per unit mass
(approximately 9.8m/s2 acting downwards. The graph and is a vector quantity with magnitude and direction.
slopes upwards steeply. On Earth's surface, g = 9.8 N/kg or 9.8 m/s^2, representing
Slowing down of Parachute: Air resistance increases both the acceleration due to gravity and the gravitational
significantly when the parachutist deploys their parachute. field strength.
This causes a decrease in acceleration, leading to a less
steep slope on the graph. The parachutist’s velocity 1.4. Density
continues to increase but at a slower rate compared to free
fall. Definition
Terminal Velocity: As the parachutist continues to fall,
their velocity eventually reaches a maximum constant value Density (ρ) is the measure of mass per unit volume
known as terminal velocity. At terminal velocity, the forces m
of gravity and air resistance (drag) balance out, resulting in ρ= V
Weight
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resulting extension.
Load-Extension Graphs
Example Calculations
Example 1: Calculate the density of copper given a mass of
63 g
63 g and a volume of 7 cm³ ρ = mV = 7 cm³ = 9 g/cm³
Force
Extension in Springs
Spring Constant
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An object remains at rest or continues to move at a Resultant force (F ) causes an object to accelerate in the
constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a direction of the force.
resultant force. When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but
This means that no force is required to maintain constant changes in shape may occur due to internal forces within
velocity if no external forces act on the object. the object.
Friction
Friction is the force that opposes the motion o of one
surface over another.
It is essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can
prevent proper movement on surfaces like ice.
Types of Friction
Friction and Air Resistance
Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the starting
Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to slow of motion between surfaces in contact.
down and eventually come to rest. Kinetic Friction: The frictional force that opposes the motion
In their absence, objects would continue moving indefinitely of surfaces sliding past each other.
with constant speed. Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an object
moving through a fluid (air or liquid), increasing with speed
Newton’s Second Law and reducing acceleration.
States that the acceleration of an object is directly Effect of Force and Mass on Friction
proportional to the force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass. Increasing the force pressing surfaces together increases
Mathematically expressed as: friction initially.
F = ma Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy,
where (F ) is the resultant force in newtons (N ), (m) is the causing a rise in temperature when contacting surfaces.
mass in kilograms (kg ), and (a) is the acceleration in meters
per second squared (m/s2 ).
Proportional Relationships
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Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of gravity Example:
improves stability. A trolley of mass m1 = 3 kg moving with velocity u1 = 5
Types of Equilibrium m/s collides and couples with a stationary trolley of mass
m2 = 2 kg. They move off together with the same velocity
Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original (v). We need to find (v).
position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ball in a bowl). 1. Calculate initial momentum (pinitial ):
Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away from pinitial = m1 ⋅ u1 = 3 kg ⋅ 5 m/s = 15 kgm/s
its original position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ruler
Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new position Since they move off together with velocity (v):
when displaced (e.g., a ball sitting on a flat surface). pfinal = (m1 + m2 ) ⋅ v = (3 kg + 2 kg) ⋅ v =
5 kg ⋅ v
3. Apply conservation of momentum (pinitial =
pfinal ):
15 kgm/s = 5 kg ⋅ v
4. Solve for (v):
v = 15 5kgm/s
kg
= 3 m/s
Momentum Impulse
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Impulse (J ) is the change in momentum (Δp) of an object Kinetic Energy (Ek ): Energy possessed by an object due to
Impulse is also a vector quantity and has the same direction Example Calculation: For a football of mass 0.4 kg moving
as the force causing it. at 20 m/s:
Ek = 12 × 0.4 × (20)2 = 80 J
Force and Momentum: Potential Energy (Ep ):Energy an object has due to its
Δt
to gravity, and (h) is height.
second law.
Example Calculation: For a 0.1 kg mass raised vertically by
1 m:
1.6. Energy, work and power Ep = 0.1 × 9.8 × 1 = 0.98 J
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Energy Type Renewable or Non- Advantages Disadvantages
renewable
High energy density, readily Limited supply, environmental
Nuclear power stations use controlled nuclear fission
Fossil Fuels Non-renewable available during peak
demand.
pollution (CO2, SO2), finite
resource. reactions with uranium to generate heat.
Nuclear Fuels Non-renewable
Radioactive waste disposal
High energy output, low CO2 issues, potential for accidents
This heat is used to produce steam indirectly through a
emissions. (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima). heat exchanger.
Abundant, no emissions Intermittent availability, high
Solar Energy Renewable during operation, diverse initial costs for large-scale The steam, similar to fossil fuel stations, drives turbines
applications. installations.
Clean energy source, connected to generators to produce electricity.
Visual and noise impacts,
Wind Energy Renewable abundant in suitable
locations. intermittent nature of wind. The operation involves the steam passing through a
Wave Energy Renewable
Renewable, predictable in
coastal areas with consistent
Technologically challenging,
potential environmental
turbine's fixed blades (stator) onto the rotating blades
waves. impacts. (rotor), where the expansion of steam energy is converted
Predictable and consistent, High infrastructure costs,
Tidal Energy Renewable minimal greenhouse gas environmental impacts on into rotational motion.
emissions. marine ecosystems.
Disruption of aquatic The rotational motion of the rotor then drives the electrical
Reliable, long operational
Hydroelectric
Energy Renewable ecosystems, potential
life, minimal greenhouse gas displacement of communities, generator, producing electricity for consumption.
emissions. limited suitable sites.
Geothermal
Energy Renewable Reliable, low emissions,
constant energy source.
Limited to geologically active
areas, high upfront costs for Power
exploration and drilling.
Competition with food
Biofuels Renewable Renewable, lower emissions
compared to fossil fuels. production, land use issues, The power of a device is the work it does per second, or the
varying energy content.
rate at which it does work.
How Fossil Fuels are used in Power Stations Power also represents the rate at which energy is
transferred from one store to another.
Coal: In coal-fired power stations, coal is burned in a boiler Formula:
work done
power = time
to produce heat. taken
Natural Gas: In gas-fired power stations, natural gas is P = t where W is the work done in time t
W
burned directly in a gas turbine. P = ΔEt where ΔE is the energy transferred in time t
The heat generated from burning these fuels is used to boil Key definition: Power is the work done per unit time and
water, creating high-pressure steam. the energy transferred per unit time.
The steam drives turbines connected to electrical Unit of power: watt (W ), where 1 W = 1 J/s
generators. Larger units:
Turbines are designed with sets of blades (rotor) mounted 1 kW = 1000 W = 103 W
on a shaft, which rotates when steam is directed onto 1 M W = 1,000,000 W = 106 W
them.
Example: If a machine does 500 J of work in 10 s, its power
As steam expands through the turbine, its energy is
is:
transferred to the rotor, causing it to spin. 500J
The spinning rotor generates electricity through 10s = 50W
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Efficiency = ( 300 J
400 J ) × 100 = 75%
Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the
ρΔhAg
A
= ρgΔh
Formula: Δp = ρgΔh
Δp is the change in pressure beneath the surface of the
liquid at depth Δh due to the weight of a liquid of density ρ
g is the gravitational field strength
This pressure acts equally in all directions at depth Δh
and depends only on Δh and ρ.
Value will be in pascals (P a) if Δh = is in meters (m) and
(ρ) is in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).
1.7. Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area.
Formula:
pressure = force
area
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c = 20000
50
2.3. Transfer of thermal energy
c = 400J/(kg°C)
Heating can change a solid to a liquid (melting) and a liquid Conduction is heat transfer through matter from hot to cold
to a solid (freezing). without moving matter.
Pure substances melt and freeze at specific temperatures, Metals conduct heat well (e.g., copper, aluminum);
such as water at 0°C. insulators (wood, plastic) are poor conductors.
Melting involves particles of a solid overcoming Metals feel colder due to rapid heat transfer from the hand
intermolecular forces to become a liquid. compared to insulators at the same temperature.
Solidification (freezing) involves the transfer of potential Liquids and gases conduct heat slowly because the particles
energy from particles to surroundings as a liquid becomes are further apart and need time to transfer energy to each
solid. other.
Vaporisation requires substantial energy to overcome Metals transfer heat via fast-moving free electrons, raising
intermolecular forces in a liquid to become gas (vapour). temperatures in cooler areas and lattice vibrations.
Condensation involves gas particles losing potential energy Non-metals transfer heat through slower atomic or
to their surroundings as they return to a liquid state. molecular vibrations, lacking free electrons.
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Convection Currents
3. Waves
3.1. General Properties of Waves
Progressive waves carry energy from one place to another
without transferring matter.
Two Types of Progressive Waves
Transverse waves
Longitudinal waves
Radiation
Emission
Surface Type Absorption of Radiation Emission of Radiation Reflectivity
Shiny White Poor absorber Poor emitter High
Dull Black Good absorber Good emitter Low
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Wavelength (λ): Distance between 2 successive crests/ Straight water waves (transverse waves) hit a metal strip in
troughs. a ripple tank at x° angle.
Frequency (f ): Number of complete waves created per Angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (r)are both x
second, measured in hertz (Hz). °.
Wave speed (v): Distance moved by a crest or any point on Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection: (i = r)
the wave in 1 second. Same wavelength as reflected wave
Amplitude (a): Height of a crest or depth of a trough from Same wave speed
the undisturbed or mean position.
Phase: Particles in ‘phase’ have the same speed and
direction of vibration.
Wave equation
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Reflection of light against a plane mirror
Diffraction
Speed of Light
The speed of light is about 1 million times faster than the Refractive Index
speed of sound.
The speed of light is 3 × 108 meters per second.
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Light refracts due to speed change when entering a A converging (or convex) lens is thickest in the center and
different medium. bends light inwards.
In air, light travels at 300, 000 km/s (3 × 10⁸ m/s) A diverging (or concave) lens is the thinnest in the center
In glass, it slows to 200,000 km/s (2 × 10⁸ m/s) and spreads the light out.
Refractive index (n) is the ratio of light speed in air to light The center of a lens is its optical center (C) and the line
speed in the medium. through C at right angles to the lens is the principal axis.
300,000km/s
For glass: n = 200,000km/s = 32 = 1.5
Principal focus
index.
Ray diagrams
A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the
principal focus (F ).
A ray through the optical center (C) is undeviated (not
refracted) for a thin lens.
A ray through the principal focus (F ) is refracted parallel to
the principal axis.
The intersection of rays (in one beam) after refraction gives
the location of the image.
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Object Position Image Position Image Nature Image Size
Draw a straight line (parallel to the principal axis). At 2F At 2F Real, inverted Same size
Between 2F and F Beyond 2F Real, inverted Larger
Start the line from the top of the object towards the lens. At F At infinity Real, inverted Infinitely large
After refraction through the lens, draw this direct ray Between F and lens On the same side of lens Virtual, upright Larger
Draw a straight line from the top of the object through the
optical center C of the lens.
This ray will continue in the same direction without bending Applications of Lenses in Vision Correction
at all.
Short-Sightedness (Myopia)
Cause: The eye lens focuses light in front of the retina
instead of on it. This causes distant objects to appear
blurry.
Correction: A diverging (concave) lens is used to spread
out light rays before they enter the eye, so the lens can
focus them correctly on the retina.
Long-Sightedness (Hypermetropia)
Image formed: Cause: The eye lens focuses light behind the retina. This
causes nearby objects to appear blurry.
These two will intersect on the opposite side of the lens to Correction: A converging (convex) lens is used to focus
form the image of the object. light rays closer together before they enter the eye, so
they focus correctly on the retina.
Image properties at different object positions are shown bendings do not cancel out in a prism.
below: Dispersion
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When white light passes through a triangular glass prism, it Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a
separates into a band of colors known as a spectrum. vacuum, approximately 3 × 108 m/s.
This separation of colors is called dispersion and occurs They can undergo reflection, refraction, and diffraction and
because the refractive index of glass varies with the are transverse waves.
wavelength of light. They follow the wave equation v = f λ, where (v ) is the
White light consists of many colors with different speed of light, (f ) is the frequency, and (λ) is the
wavelengths, and the prism separates them based on their wavelength.
refractive indices. Higher frequency means smaller wavelength and therefore
The colors of the visible spectrum, from longest to shortest more energy carried.
wavelength, are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,
and violet Radio Waves and Microwaves
Red light, with the longest wavelength and lowest
frequency, is refracted the least by the prism. Radio waves are the longest-wavelength electromagnetic
Violet light, with the shortest wavelength and highest waves used for communication, radio and television
frequency, is refracted the most by the prism. transmission, astronomy, and radio frequency
identification.
Microwaves have shorter wavelengths than radiowaves and
are used in telecommunications, satellite communication,
radar, and microwave ovens.
Infrared Radiation
Ultraviolet Radiation
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Longitudinal Waves
X-rays have smaller wavelengths than ultraviolet rays and
are used in medical imaging, security screening, and Sound waves are longitudinal
industrial inspection. Particles in the medium (like air or water molecules) vibrate
Gamma rays are highly penetrating (smallest wavelength back and forth parallel to the direction of wave
and largest frequency) and used in cancer detection cancer propagation.
treatment to kill cells, sterilization, and material inspection. This creates areas of compression (where molecules are
closer together) and rarefaction (where they are far apart)
Communication Systems as the wave travels through the medium.
The movement of particles transfers energy through the
Below are the differences between digital and analog
signals: medium.
This vibration causes the sound to be heard
Aspect Digital Signals Analog Signals
Signal Type Discrete, binary (0s and 1s)
Continuous, varying amplitude and
frequency
Compressions and Rarefactions
Transmission Higher transmission rates Limited by bandwidth and signal
Rate degradation over distance Sound waves are made of compressions (C ) and
Examples Digital data, internet signals, computer Audio signals, analog television, older
memory telephone systems rarefactions (R) as they move through a medium.
Compressions are regions where air molecules are densely
packed together and the regions have higher pressure.
Rarefactions are regions where air molecules are less
densely packed and the regions have lower pressure.
Limits of hearing
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Reflection of sound (Echo)
Place two microphones a known distance (like 10 meters)
Sound waves reflect off hard and flat surfaces like how light apart.
reflects off a mirror. Connect microphones to an oscilloscope to detect the
When sound reflects, it creates an echo, which is a sound.
repetition of the original sound heard after a short delay. Produce a sound source equidistant from both points and
start timing when the sound is produced.
Stop timing when the sound is detected at the second
point.
Use the formula (v = dt ), where (d) is the known distance
Speed of Sound
Echo Method
Stand at a known distance (like more than 300 meters) from
a large wall.
Clap hands or produce a sharp sound and start a stopwatch
simultaneously.
Wait for the distinct echo from the surface and stop the
stopwatch when you hear it.
Calculation: Use the formula (v = 2dt ), where (d) is the
Direct Method
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The pitch of the note is determined by the frequency of the Magnetic poles attract magnetic materials and are found
sound wave (higher frequencies produce higher pitch near the ends of magnets.
notes). Poles always come in pairs: north and south.
Loudness is determined by the amplitude of vibrations ( Every magnet has a North Pole (N ) and a South Pole (S ).
greater amplitude produces louder sounds) The North Pole of a magnet points towards the Earth's
Quality (timbre) of a sound is its unique shape or texture, geographic North Pole.
caused by the instrument's construction.
Law of Magnetic Poles
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Iron nails and steel paper clips can be magnetised by A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where
hanging them from a magnet. magnetic forces act.
Each nail or clip magnetises the next in a chain, with unlike Field strength is higher where magnetic field lines are closer
poles attracting each other. together and lower where they are further apart.
Removing an iron chain by pulling the top nail causes it to Magnetic fields are shown using lines of force, showing the
collapse because iron shows temporary magnetism. direction from North to South poles.
Steel chains do not collapse when removed because they The density of these lines indicates field strength: closer
have permanent magnetism. lines represent stronger magnetic fields.
Soft materials (e.g. iron) are easily magnetised but lose
magnetism quickly.
Hard materials (e.g. steel) are harder to magnetise but
remain magnetised longer.
Electromagnets
Magnetic Fields
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Current Increase: Higher current in the coil results in Charges are produced by friction, which transfers electrons
stronger magnetism. between materials.
More Turns: Increasing the number of turns in coils around Electrons move between materials during rubbing; protons
the core increases magnet strength. remain in the nuclei and do not move.
Closer Poles: Moving the magnetic poles closer together
increases electromagnet strength. Units of charge
Production of Charges
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Electric Current is defined as charge passing a point per Chemical actions inside a battery produce electron excess
unit time, symbolized as at the negative terminal and shortage at the positive
(I = Qt ).
terminal
Unit of current is the ampere (A), with one milliampere ( Battery maintains electron flow (electric current) in a
mA) equal to one-thousandth of an ampere and is connected circuit as long as chemical actions last.
measured by an ammeter. The battery does work when moving the charge around the
Unit of charge is the coulomb (C ), defined as the charge circuit.
passing a point when a steady current of 1 ampere flows Electromotive force (e.m.f .) is the electrical work done by a
for 1 second (1C = 1As). source in moving unit charge around a complete circuit.
Electromotive force is measured in volts (V ).
Charge Calculation
Q=I ×t Potential Difference
where Q is charge, I is current, and t is time in seconds. Electric current transfers energy from a battery to circuit
Conventional Current components and surroundings.
Conventional current flows from positive to negative Potential difference (p.d.) is the work done by unit charge
terminals of a battery, opposite to electron flow. passing through a component
Circuit diagrams show conventional current direction with P .d. is measured in volts.
arrows, while electrons move in the opposite direction. Voltage is sometimes used instead of p.d.
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb 1 V = 1 CJ )
Electrons flow continuously in one direction. Electrons regularly change their direction of flow.
Provided by batteries Produced by generators. Resistance
Frequency of Alternating Current Electrons move more easily through some conductors
when p.d. is applied.
Frequency refers to the number of complete cycles per Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to current.
second. Good conductors have low resistance while poor
It is measured in Hertz (Hz ), where 1 Hz equals one cycle conductors have high resistance
per second. Ohm (Ω) is the unit of resistance.
Formula: R = VI
Variable Resistors
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They can change current in a circuit (rheostat mode) or act Diode has small resistance when connected one way and
as a potential divider by dividing voltage across very large resistance when p.d. is reversed.
components as desired. It conducts electricity in one direction only, and it is a non-
ohmic conductor.
Filament Lamp
I–V graphs and Ohm’s Law
Non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures
Metals and some alloys give I–V graphs that are straight I–V graph curve flattens as V and I increase, showing
lines through the origin, showing that I is directly increasing resistance with increasing current and increasing
proportional to V or that I ∝ V . temperature.
Doubling V doubles I .
Such conductors obey Ohm’s law: V = IR
Ohmic or linear conductors are the conductors where
resistance does not change with V .
Thermistor
Semiconductor Diode
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An increase in temperature generally increases the Power defined as work done or energy transferred per time
resistance of metals. taken: P = Wt
Thermistors' resistance is different and decreases with P is power in watts (W ), W is work done in joules (J ), t is
rising temperature. time in seconds (s)
It is a non-ohmic conductor For a steady current (I) in a device with a potential
difference (V ) across it, the work done has a formula W =
I ×t×V
Substituting work done with the power P = IV multiplied
by time in seconds (t), the energy transferred is: E =
Pt = IV t
Example
Resistance of some semiconductors decreases with If all energy transferred to thermal energy in a resistor of
increased light intensity. resistance R:
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) use this property to P = V × I = IR × I = I 2 R
function. Doubling the current produces four times the thermal
I–V graph for an LDR is similar to that of a thermistor energy per second P = I 2 R
LDR is also a non-ohmic conductor. Larger unit for energy: kilowatt-hour (kWh)
1 kWh = 1000 Js × 3600 s = 3600000 J = 3.6 M J
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In a series circuit, there is a single path for the current to In a series circuit, the total resistance (R0 ) is the sum of the
flow. individual resistances: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3
The current remains the same throughout: Given resistors R1 , R2 , and R3 the total voltage (V ) across
Ω= 12 Ω
The total current is the sum of the currents through each
Current (I ): I = VR = 4.5V
12Ω = 0.375 A
branch
If the total current from the source is (I0 ), and the current
p.d. across 4 Ω resistor: V2 = I × R2 = 0.375 A × 4 Ω = 1.5
Resistors in Parallel
1 ×R2
R0 = R
R1 +R2
Potential Difference (p.d.) in Series and Parallel Circuits 4.5. Applications of electric circuits
In a series circuit, the total potential difference across the Increase in Resistance of a Conductor
components is the sum of the individual potential
differences: V0 = V1 + V2 + V3
In metals, current is carried by free electrons. As the
In a parallel circuit, the potential difference across each temperature of the metal increases:
component is the same as the potential difference across The atoms vibrate more, making it harder for electrons to
one branch: Vacross each branch = V0
move.
This results in an increase in resistance.
Cells, Batteries, and Electromotive Force (e.m.f .)
From Ohm's Law V = IR , if resistance (R) increases while
Cells in series increase the total e.m.f . of the battery. For maintaining a constant current(I), the potential difference (V )
example, if two 1.5 V cells are connected in series then the across the conductor also increases.
e.m.f .= 1.5 V + 1.5 V = 3.0 V Variable Potential Divider
Resistors in Series
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In a thermistor, resistance decreases with increasing An LDR’s resistance decreases with increasing light
temperature. intensity.
When it’s used in a potential divider circuit: In a circuit, as light intensity increases:
As temperature rises, the thermistor's resistance The LDR’s resistance decreases, allowing more current
decreases. to flow.
This lowers the combined resistance of the two This increase in current can light a lamp or cause other
resistors, increasing the current if the supply voltage actions.
remains constant.
The potential difference across the fixed resistor
increases relative to that across the thermistor.
A variable resistor can also act as a potential divider by
adjusting the position of the contact, changing the output
potential difference.
Thermistor
A thermistor's resistance decreases significantly with
temperature increase.
In a series circuit with a thermistor:
As temperature rises, its resistance drops, decreasing
Potential Divider the potential difference across it.
For two resistors R1 and R2 in series with a supply voltage (V ) This causes an increase in voltage across a series
resistor, which can trigger a relay or alarm.
Relays
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A relay allows a small current to control a larger current Damaged Insulation: Exposes wires, increasing shock and
needed to operate an appliance. fire risk.
In a switching circuit: Overheated Cables: Can lead to fire.
If the switching circuit output is high, a small current Damp Conditions: Increase shock severity due to reduced
flows through the relay, closing the mains switch. resistance.
This isolates the low voltage circuit from the high Excess Current: From overloaded plugs, extension leads,
voltage mains supply. and multiple sockets.
Electric Shock: Current flows from an electric circuit through
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) a person's body to earth.
An LED emits light when forward-biased (cathode Dry Skin: Resistance ~10,000 Ω and current around 24
connected to the negative terminal): mA (it is safe).
Reverse bias (anode connected to the negative terminal) Wet Skin: Resistance ~1,000 Ω and current ~240 mA (can
does not emit light and can damage the LED if the be deadly).
Larger currents are more dangerous.
reverse voltage exceeds 5 V .
Longer exposure increases risk.
A suitable resistor R (e.g. 300 Ω on a 5 V supply) is
needed to limit the current. Reducing Risk
Semiconductor Diode Turn off power before repairs.
Use earth pin and cord grips.
A diode allows current to pass in only one direction: Keep appliances dry and away from water.
Forward-biased: current flows when the anode is Avoid trailing cables and damage, especially with cutting
connected to the positive terminal and the cathode to tools.
the negative terminal.
Reverse-biased: the diode does not conduct and has First Aid for Electric Shock
high resistance.
Switch off the power if the person is still in contact with the
equipment.
Call for medical assistance.
Causes of fires
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Live and Neutral Wires: Both supply electricity and the Straight Wire and U-shaped Magnet
neutral is earthed. Wire held still between magnet pole leads to no induced
Earth Wire: Provides safety by connecting metal cases to current.
earth. Moving wire vertically (up or down) between poles induces
current because of changing magnetic flux (cutting
magnetic field lines)
Upward movement: current flows in one direction.
Downward movement: current flows in the opposite
direction.
Deflection on meter is temporary and occurs only while
wire is moving.
Circuit Breakers
Electromagnetism breaks the circuit when current exceeds
a preset level.
Advantages: Faster operation and can be reset.
Bar Magnet and Coil (solenoid)
Earthing
Double Insulation
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Inserting magnet into coil (solenoid) induces current in one Straight Wire:
direction. When current flows through a vertical wire, iron filings
A solenoid is a coil of wire wound in a helical shape that around it form circles.
generates a magnetic field when an electric current Meaning that around a straight wire, there are circular
passes through it. magnetic field lines.
Removing magnet from solenoid induces current in the Field direction changes with current direction (upwards
opposite direction. or downwards through the wire)
No current is induced when magnet is stationary inside Use right-hand grip rule: direction of thumb (upwards or
solenoid. downwards) indicates magnetic field direction by the
Current direction reverses with the direction of magnet remaining fingers (clockwise or anti-clockwise).
movement.
This also works if the solenoid is moved instead of the
magnet.
Solenoid
Factors Affecting Induced e.m.f . A long cylindrical coil produces a magnetic field similar
to a bar magnet.
Faster movement of magnet or coil increases induced e.m.f. End A behaves like the north pole, and end B behaves
More turns in the coil increase the induced e.m.f. like the south pole.
Stronger magnets increase the induced e.m.f. Right-hand grip rule: grip solenoid in current direction,
e.m.f . is directly proportional to the rate at which the thumb points to the north pole.
conductor cuts through magnetic field lines. Magnetic field inside the solenoid is stronger and
denser compared to outside.
Direction of Induced e.m.f . (Lenz’s Law)
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Variation of Magnetic Field Strength
A reed switch uses magnetic fields to control a circuit.
Magnetic field strength decreases with distance from the Operated by current flowing through a coil, which
wire. magnetizes reeds of magnetic material.
Field lines spread out as distance increases. Current flows: Reeds become magnetized, attract each
Increasing current strengthens the magnetic field and lines other, and close the circuit.
become closer together. Current stops: Reeds lose magnetization, separate, and
Reversing current direction reverses the direction of the open the circuit.
magnetic field.
Components
Coil: Creates the magnetic field.
Soft Iron Core: Magnetized by the coil, attracts the
armature.
L-shaped Iron Armature: Moves to close or open
contacts.
Contacts: Switches the second circuit on or off.
Reed Switch
Electric Bell
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Operation
When direct current (d.c.) flows through the coil, a force
acts on the coil due to the interaction with the magnetic
field.
4.9. Motors and generators This force creates a turning effect, causing the coil to rotate.
The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of current
Simple d.c. Electric Motor in the coil as it rotates, making sure there is continuous
rotation by maintaining the direction of force.
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Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is used for the d.c. As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, it cuts through the
motor field lines, inducing an electromotive force (e.m.f .)
The e.m.f . varies as the coil moves
Vertical Position: No e.m.f . as the coil cuts the least
number of field lines.
Horizontal Position: Maximum e.m.f . as the coil cuts the
most field lines.
The direction of e.m.f . reverses as the coil continues to
rotate, producing alternating current (a.c.) in the circuit.
The frequency of the a.c. is determined by the rotation
speed of the coil. For example, a coil rotating twice per
second generates an a.c. with a frequency of 2 Hz.
4.10. Transformers
The transformer changes alternating voltage to different
values.
Consists of primary and secondary coils on a soft iron core.
Coils can be wound on top of each other or separate limbs.
Mutual Induction
Operation
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Transformer Equation
dense nucleus.
Electrons orbit the nucleus at a large distance away.
If V is doubled, I is halved.
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The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. Forms of the same element with the same number of
Three basic particles in an atom include protons, neutrons, protons but different number of neutrons.
and electrons. Example: Chlorine has isotopes 35 37
17 Cl and 17 Cl while
Proton = a hydrogen atom minus an electron charge +1 Hydrogen has isotopes 1 H , deuterium 1 H , and tritium 31 H .
1 2
Isotopes
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Ionisation: Neutral Atom + Electron → Negative Ion
Reactors use controlled chain reactions to produce energy. Geiger–Müller (GM) Tube
Control rods absorb neutrons to regulate the reaction.
Graphite moderates neutrons to slow down fission. The ionising effect of radiation is used to detect radiation.
Radiation entering a GM tube creates argon ions and
electrons, which then cause more ionisation.
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Type of Mass Charge Penetrating Power Ionising
Radiation Power
Alpha (α) High (Helium nucleus) +2 Low (stopped by paper) High
Alpha particles follow the rule of positive conventional
Beta (β) Low (electron) -1 Moderate (stopped by few mm of Moderate
current.
aluminum)
None (electromagnetic High (stopped by several cm of
Fleming’s left-hand rule is used with the middle finger
Gamma (γ ) 0 Low
wave) lead) pointing in the direction of alpha particles.
Beta particles are shown in the direction opposite to the
Particle Tracks middle finger, as they represent electron flow, which is the
opposite of conventional current.
Cloud chambers reveal the tracks of particles based on the
Gamma radiation is not deflected.
ionisation they produce.
Alpha Particles: Straight, thick tracks.
Beta Particles: Thin, straight or twisted tracks.
Gamma Rays: Eject electrons which then produce
tracks similar to β particles.
Electric deflection
222
becomes radon (86 Rn).
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In β-decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the
electron. nuclei in a sample to decay.
The proton remains in the nucleus, while the electron is It is a measure of the rate at which a radioactive substance
emitted as a β-particle. decays.
The nucleon number stays the same, but the proton Each isotope has its own special half-life.
number increases by 1. It can be from fractions of a second to millions of years.
Example: Radioactive carbon 14 14
6 C decays into nitrogen (7 N)
A decay curve plots the activity of a sample over time,
by β-emission. showing the exponential decrease in activity.
The equation for this decay is: 14 14 0
6 C →7 N +−1 e
The activity decreases by half in each half-life period from
the previous half-life period.
Gamma Emission (γ-emission) Example: If a sample's activity is 80 decays per second, it
will reduce to 40 in one half-life, then to 20 in the next, and
After α- or β-decay, some nuclei are left in an excited or
so on.
energetic state. Radioactive decay is random and unpredictable; the exact
Rearrangement of protons and neutrons releases energy in time when a particular nucleus will decay cannot be
the form of γ-emissions.
determined.
γ-emissions are high-energy electromagnetic waves with no
The overall decay rate of a sample follows a predictable
mass or charge.
pattern, called its half-life.
Nuclear Stability
Nuclei with more than 82 protons usually decay by α- 5.4. Safety precautions
emission.
Dangers of Nuclear Radiation
Half-Life
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Exposure to small doses of radiation is not damaging, but The Earth spins on its axis, causing day and night.
large doses are harmful to health. One complete rotation takes 24 hours.
Nuclear radiation's ionising effect damages cells and Day is for the half of the Earth facing the Sun and night for
tissues, it can lead to gene mutations. the half facing away.
Damage can cause cell death and cancers.
α-particles are less dangerous unless the source is ingested Rising and setting of the Sun
or inhaled. Earth's rotation causes the Sun to appear to move east to
β- and γ-radiation can cause radiation burns, eye cataracts, west daily.
and cancer.
Rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west at
Radiation hazard signs warn of the presence of radioactive equinoxes.
material. In northern hemisphere summer, the Sun rises north of
east and sets north of west.
In winter, rises and sets south of these points.
The seasons
Caused by Earth's motion around the Sun (365 days) and tilt
of its axis.
6. Space Physics
6.1. The Earth and the solar system
Motion of the Earth
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Waning (where the moon's illumination decreases) phases
follow, leading to the last quarter and old crescent Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
Small, similar size
Solid and rocky with layered structures
High density
Formed close to the Sun where it was too hot for gases to
condense, allowing only metals and silicates to form solid
bodies
In the early Solar System, the Sun's heat caused lighter
gases to evaporate, leaving only heavy elements like iron
and silicon to form solid planets.
Outer Planets
It contains:
The sun as a star
Eight planets in elliptical orbits (slightly oval orbits)
Dwarf planets and asteroids orbiting the Sun Asteroids
Moons orbiting many planets
Smaller bodies like comets and natural satellites Pieces of rock of various sizes, mostly between Mars and
Jupiter
Inner Planets Orbit around the Sun
Similar density to inner planets
Burn up in Earth's atmosphere as meteors
Comets
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Dust embedded in ice made from water and methane Distance from the Sun to Earth: approximately 150 million
Orbits the Sun in highly elliptical paths km (1.5 × 108 km)
Develop a bright long tail when approaching the Sun due to Speed of light: 300,000 kilometers per second (km/s)
radiation pressure
Using the formula for time:
Time = Distance
Speed
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Hot and dense enough for hydrogen to fuse into helium. End Stage
Fusion process releases energy, maintaining high core Use hydrogen rapidly, with a shorter stable phase
temperatures. (about 100 million years).
Some core energy moves to outer layers, which emit After helium fusion, core collapses into a red
electromagnetic radiation. supergiant.
Fusion of carbon into heavier elements occurs until iron
Light-years forms.
Distance light travels in a vacuum in one year. Supernova explosion releases energy and heavy
elements into space.
1 light-year = 9.5 × 10¹² km = 9.5 × 10¹⁵ m
Neutron Star: Dense core, may act as a pulsar.
Galaxies Black Hole: Extremely dense core with gravitational
Large collections of stars, gas, and dust. field so strong that even light cannot escape; identified
by X-ray radiation from nearby material.
6.3. Origin and life cycle of stars
Formation
Interstellar clouds of dust and gas collapse under
gravitational attraction.
A protostar forms as mass increases and core temperature
rises.
Hydrogen fuses into helium when the core is hot enough,
resulting in a star.
Star Types
End Stage
Core collapses into a white dwarf after all helium is
used.
Outer layers expelled, forming a planetary nebula.
White dwarf cools into a black dwarf over about a billion
years.
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Occurs when a source of waves (e.g., sound or light) moves Hubble’s Law: The relationship between the speed of
relative to an observer. recession (v ) and the distance (d) of galaxies is given by:
Approaching Source: Waves are compressed, resulting in a v = H0 × d
higher frequency and pitch (blue shift for light). Hubble Constant (H0 ): H0 = vd
Receding Source: Waves are stretched, resulting in a lower H0 measures the rate of the Universe's expansion. A higher
frequency and pitch (red shift for light).
Detailed Calculation
4.5×1017 s
Age of the Universe ≈ 3.2×10 7 s/year ≈ 1.4 ×
10
10 years ≈ 14 billion years
Speed of Recession
This radiation is a remnant from the Big Bang and fills the
entire Universe.
The radiation has been redshifted into the microwave
region due to the expansion of the Universe.
Provides strong evidence for the Big Bang theory and
insights into the early Universe.
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THEORY
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