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Physics Notes

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Physics Notes

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ZNOTES.

ORG

ALIGNED WITH THE 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS (0625)
THEORY
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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Area

1. Motion, Forces and Energy The area of a square with sides 1 cm long is 1 square
centimetre (1 cm²).
Area formula: area = length × breadth.
1.1. Physical Quantities and Measurement SI unit of area: square metre (m²), which is the area of a
Techniques square with sides 1 m long.

Units and basic quantities Volume

A standard or unit must be chosen before a measurement


can be made.
The size of the quantity to be measured is found using an
instrument with a scale marked in the unit
Three basic quantities are measured in physics: length,
mass, and time.
Units for other quantities are based on length, mass, and
time.
The SI (Système International d’Unités) system is a set of
units used in many countries

Length
Unit of length: metre (m) Volume is the amount of space occupied.
1 decimetre (dm) = 10⁻¹ m Unit of volume: cubic metre (m³).
1 centimetre (cm) = 10⁻² m Commonly used unit for volume: cubic centimetre (cm³).
1 millimetre (mm) = 10⁻³ m Volume of a cylinder: V = πr2 h
1 micrometre (μm) = 10⁻⁶ m A measuring cylinder can measure the volume of a liquid.
1 nanometre (nm) = 10⁻⁹ m Ensure the cylinder is upright and the eye is at bottom level
of the meniscus.
Multiples for large distances:
Time
1 kilometre (km) = 10³ m
1 gigametre (Gm) = 10⁹ m Unit of time: second (s).
Many length measurements are made with rulers/meter Time-measuring devices use oscillations.
rule Choose a timer that is precise enough for the task (e.g., a
stopwatch for the pendulum period or a millisecond timer
For any length less than a meter, we use a tape measure for measuring the speed of sound).

Scalars and Vectors

Note: Take ± readings for accuracy

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Scalar quantity: has magnitude (size) only.


Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, pressure, energy,
temperature.
Vector quantity: described by both magnitude and
direction.
Examples: force, gravitational field strength, electric field
strength, weight, velocity, acceleration, momentum.
Representing Vectors: a straight line with length indicating
the magnitude and an arrow showing direction.
Adding scalars: ordinary arithmetic.
Adding vectors: geometrically, considering both magnitude
and direction.

For two vectors, FX and FY, at right angles: Distance is a length a body travels between two points. It is
a scalar quantity.
The magnitude of the resultant Displacement is similar to distance but as it is a vector
quantity, direction is also considered.
F = FX2 + FY2
​ ​

Distance-Time Graph Examples

Angle θ between FX and F

tan θ = FY
FX


At rest ( BC).
Constant speed (AB and CD)

Speed is higher when the gradient is steeper. For example,


the speed of the train at CD is 2m/s, but that at AB is 1m/s.
It is higher in CD, which can be seen as CD being steeper.

Non-Constant Speed

When speed changes, the gradient of the distance-time


graph varies.
Upward curve of increasing gradient: accelerating.
The upward curve of decreasing gradient: decelerating.
Example:

Gradient of the tangent at T:


AB 40m
BC = 2s = 20m/s
1.2. Motion
​ ​

Distance and displacement

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Acceleration

When the velocity of an object changes, the object


accelerates.
Acceleration is defined as the change of velocity in unit
time:
Δv
Acceleration = Δt ​

Time (s) Speed (m/s)


0 0
1 5
2 10
3 15
4 20
5 25
6 30
Speed
Example: If a car starts from rest and reaches a velocity
Speed is the distance travelled by a body in unit time. of 2 m/s after 1 second, its acceleration is
When the distance travelled is (s) over a short time period 2m/s2 , due north
(t), the speed (v) is given by: Key definition: Acceleration is the change in velocity per unit
s time.
v= t ​

Example: For a steady increase of velocity from 20 m/s to 50


Key definition: Speed is the distance travelled per unit time. m/s in 5 seconds: Acceleration = (50−20),m/s5s
= 6m/s2 ​

General formula: Acceleration is a vector, and its magnitude and direction


should be stated.
Total distance travelled
Average speed = Total time taken ​
For motion in a straight line, the magnitude of the velocity
equals the speed, and the magnitude of the acceleration
Example: If a car travels 300 km in five hours, its average equals the speed change in unit time.
speed is: Average speed = 3005 hkm = 60 km/h ​

Example: A car accelerating on a straight road with the


Velocity following speeds:
The speed increases by 5 m/s every second, and the
Velocity is the distance travelled in unit time in a given acceleration is constant at 5 m/s².
direction. Ie. Velocity = Speed given in a specific direction. Acceleration is positive if the velocity increases.
Speed is the distance travelled in unit time. Acceleration is negative if the velocity decreases (also
Example: If two trains travel due north at 20 m/s, they have called deceleration or retardation).
the same speed and velocity due north. If one travels north
Speed-Time Graphs
and the other south, their speeds are the same, but not
their velocities. Speed-time graphs plot the speed of an object against time.
Key definition: Velocity is the change in displacement per Used to solve motion problems.
unit of time.
Velocity formula: Constant Speed
Velocity = Distance moved in a given direction
Time taken =
Example: AB is a speed-time graph for an object moving

Displacement
T ime with a constant speed of 25 m/s.

Velocity is the speed in a given direction.


A body's velocity is uniform or constant if it moves at a A straight horizontal line on a speed-time graph indicates
steady speed in a straight line. constant speed.
Velocity is not uniform if the body moves in a curved path.
Speed and velocity units are the same: km/h, m/s.

Note: Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity a vector quantity.


Displacement is a vector, unlike distance which is a scalar

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Constant Acceleration Example 2: The figure shows changing acceleration with a


curved shape.

The linear shape (AB) of the graph indicates constant


acceleration. Speed increases over time, but by a smaller amount each
The speed increases by 4 m/s every second, indicating second, indicating decreasing acceleration.
constant acceleration.
Using Gradient to Calculate Acceleration
Variable Acceleration
Example 1: The figure shows acceleration from rest, The gradient of a speed-time graph represents the
constant speed, and deceleration. acceleration.
For constant speed, the gradient is zero, indicating zero
acceleration.
For constant acceleration, the gradient is given by:
Δy Y 2 −Y 1
Gradient = Δx ​ = ​

X 2 −X 1


For changing acceleration, the gradient changes, indicating


changing acceleration.
An object accelerates if the speed increases and
decelerates if the speed decreases with time.

Area Under a Speed-Time Graph

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

In the air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of paper due
to air resistance.
In a vacuum, both fall at the same rate.
Air resistance has a greater effect on light bodies compared
to heavy bodies.
Air resistance is negligible for dense, heavy objects at low
speeds.

Acceleration of Free Fall


All bodies falling freely under gravity accelerate uniformly if
air resistance is negligible.
This uniform acceleration is called the acceleration of free
Measures the distance travelled. fall, denoted by ( g ).
The rule applies even if acceleration is not constant. The value of (g) varies slightly but is about 9.8 m/s² on
The distance equals the shaded area under the graph. average.
The velocity of a free-falling body increases by about 9.8m/s
Equations for constant acceleration every second.
First Equation A ball shot upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s decelerates
If an object is moving with constant acceleration ( a ) in a by about 9.8 m/s every second, reaching its highest point
straight line and its speed increases from ( u ) to ( v ) in after 3 seconds.
time ( t ): As an object falls, air resistance increases, reducing its
Acceleration is given by: acceleration.
v−u
a= t ​

Rearranging gives:

v = u + at (Equation 1)

Second Equation
For an object moving with constant acceleration, its
average speed equals half the sum of its initial and final
speeds:
u+v
Average speed = 2 ​

If (s) is the distance moved in time (t), then: When air resistance equals the object's weight, it falls at a
s terminal velocity.
Average speed = t Terminal velocity depends on the object's size, shape, and

Combining these, we get weight.


A small, dense object has a high terminal velocity and
s u+v
t = 2

accelerates for a longer distance.


A light object or one with a large surface area, like a
Rearranging gives: raindrop or parachute, has a low terminal velocity and
accelerates over a shorter distance.
s = (u+v) ⋅ t (Equation 2)
2 Following is the velocity-time graph for a falling parachutist:

Air Resistance and Free Fall

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Explanation: Gravitational Field

Initial Phase: When the parachutist jumps out of the plane, Gravity acts through space, causing objects not in contact
they experience free fall. During this phase, their velocity with the Earth to fall towards it.
increases steadily due to the acceleration of gravity Gravitational field strength (g) is the force per unit mass
(approximately 9.8m/s2 acting downwards. The graph and is a vector quantity with magnitude and direction.
slopes upwards steeply. On Earth's surface, g = 9.8 N/kg or 9.8 m/s^2, representing
Slowing down of Parachute: Air resistance increases both the acceleration due to gravity and the gravitational
significantly when the parachutist deploys their parachute. field strength.
This causes a decrease in acceleration, leading to a less
steep slope on the graph. The parachutist’s velocity 1.4. Density
continues to increase but at a slower rate compared to free
fall. Definition
Terminal Velocity: As the parachutist continues to fall,
their velocity eventually reaches a maximum constant value Density (ρ) is the measure of mass per unit volume
known as terminal velocity. At terminal velocity, the forces m
of gravity and air resistance (drag) balance out, resulting in ρ= V

zero net acceleration. On the velocity-time graph, this


Standard units for density include kilograms per cubic
appears as a horizontal line where the velocity remains
meter (kg/m³) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³).
constant.
Calculation Methods
1.3. Mass and Weight
Regular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance, and
Mass measure volume (V ) by direct measurement of dimensions.
Irregular Shape: Measure mass (m) using a balance.
The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of Measure volume (V ) using displacement methods:
matter in it. It is a measure of the quantity of matter in an
object at rest relative to an observer. Method 1: Immerse the object in a measuring cylinder filled
The standard unit of mass is the kilogram (kg), with the with water, record the initial and final water levels to find
gram (g) being one-thousandth of a kilogram: 1g = volume.
10−3 kg = 0.001kg
Mass is different from weight, which is a gravitational force
on an object with mass.

Weight

Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object that has


mass.
The weight of an object can vary with location due to
differences in gravitational field strength.
The unit of force is the Newton (N). Weight is measured in
newtons and can be determined using a spring balance.
Aspect Mass Weight
Measure of the amount of matter in Gravitational force acting on an object
Definition an object with mass Method 2: Displacement Can. Fill the can until the spout.
Units Kilogram (kg), gram (g) Newton (N) Immerse the object in the water and find the volume of
This can be measured using a balance Measured usingscalea spring balance or
Measurement
water displaced. That volume of water is the volume of the
Independent of location and Depends on location and gravitational
Dependency gravitational field field strength object.
Symbol in m (W ), or, (Fg )
Equations

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

The spring constant (k) measures the force needed to


cause a unit extension in a spring.
k = Fx , where (F ) is the force applied and (x) is the

resulting extension.
Load-Extension Graphs

Used to graphically represent the relationship between


applied force (load) and resulting extension in materials like
springs.
Non-linear graphs beyond the limit of proportionality
indicate permanent deformation.

Liquid: To determine the mass of an empty container, add


liquid, measure total mass, and subtract to find the mass of
the liquid. Divide by the known volume to find density.
Air: Measure the mass of a flask filled with air, then remove
the air with a vacuum pump. Calculate air density by
dividing the mass difference by volume measured using
water displacement.

Example Calculations
Example 1: Calculate the density of copper given a mass of
63 g
63 g and a volume of 7 cm³ ρ = mV = 7 cm³ = 9 g/cm³
​ ​

Example 2: Determine the mass of an aluminium sheet


with a volume of 73 cm³ and a density of 2.7 g/cm³ Forces and Resultants
m = ρ × V = 2.7 g/cm³ × 73 cm³ = 197.1 g
Forces have magnitude and direction, represented by
Floating and Sinking: arrows in diagrams.
Multiple forces acting on an object can be balanced (e.g.
Objects float or sink in liquids based on their density weight and support force) or have a resultant force.
relative to the liquid's density. A higher-density object sinks The resultant force is the single force that has the same
in a lower-density liquid and vice versa. effect as all forces acting together.
A resultant force can change the velocity of an object by
1.5. Forces altering its speed or direction of motion.

Force

A force is a push or a pull that can change the motion,


speed, or shape of an object.
It can cause objects at rest to move or alter the direction of
moving objects.

Extension in Springs

Springs follow Hooke's Law, where extension is


proportional to the stretching force up to the limit of
proportionality.
Symbolically, extension ∝ stretching force Newton’s First Law

Spring Constant

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

An object remains at rest or continues to move at a Resultant force (F ) causes an object to accelerate in the
constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a direction of the force.
resultant force. When forces are balanced, there is no acceleration, but
This means that no force is required to maintain constant changes in shape may occur due to internal forces within
velocity if no external forces act on the object. the object.

Friction
Friction is the force that opposes the motion o of one
surface over another.
It is essential for walking and gripping surfaces but can
prevent proper movement on surfaces like ice.

Types of Friction
Friction and Air Resistance
Static Friction: The frictional force that opposes the starting
Forces like friction and air resistance cause objects to slow of motion between surfaces in contact.
down and eventually come to rest. Kinetic Friction: The frictional force that opposes the motion
In their absence, objects would continue moving indefinitely of surfaces sliding past each other.
with constant speed. Fluid Friction (Drag): Resistance encountered by an object
moving through a fluid (air or liquid), increasing with speed
Newton’s Second Law and reducing acceleration.
States that the acceleration of an object is directly Effect of Force and Mass on Friction
proportional to the force acting on it and inversely
proportional to its mass. Increasing the force pressing surfaces together increases
Mathematically expressed as: friction initially.
F = ma Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal energy,
where (F ) is the resultant force in newtons (N ), (m) is the causing a rise in temperature when contacting surfaces.
mass in kilograms (kg ), and (a) is the acceleration in meters
per second squared (m/s2 ).

Proportional Relationships

Acceleration (a) is directly proportional to the force (F )


when mass (m) is constant
a∝F Centripetal Force
Acceleration (a) is inversely proportional to mass (m) when In a circular motion, an object moves in a curved path due
force (F ) is constant to a force directed towards the centre of the circle.
a ∝ m1 ​

Units and Constant (k )

The unit of force, the newton (N ), is defined as the force


that gives a 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1m/s2
k in F = kma equals 1 when m = 1kg and a = 1 m/s2
Resultant Force and Motion

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Balancing a Beam and the Law of Equilibrium

To balance a beam around a pivot point, the principle of


Acceleration in Circular Motion moments (or law of moments) is used.
The law states that for a beam in equilibrium, the sum of
Despite constant speed, circular motion involves clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of
acceleration because velocity direction changes anticlockwise moments about the same point.
continuously. This principle is essential for designing and understanding
Acceleration towards the centre of the circle is necessary to the equilibrium of lever systems and other balanced
maintain circular motion. structures.
Factors Affecting Centripetal Force Conditions for Equilibrium
Centripetal force magnitude depends on the following: An object is in equilibrium if:
Speed (v): Increasing speed increases centripetal force. The sum of all forces acting on it equals zero (static
Radius (r): Decreasing radius increases centripetal force. equilibrium).
Mass (m): Increasing mass increases centripetal force. The sum of all moments (clockwise and anticlockwise)
around any point is zero (rotational equilibrium).
Role of Centripetal Force
Centre of Gravity
It ensures the object maintains a constant distance from
the centre of the circle. The centre of gravity (or centre of mass) of an object is the
point through which the entire weight of the object acts.
Moment of a Force It behaves as if all the mass were concentrated at this single
The turning effect of a force around a pivot point is called point.
the moment of the force. For a uniform object, such as a ruler, the centre of gravity is
It depends on both the magnitude of the force and the at its geometric centre.
perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action Determining the Centre of Gravity
of the force.
Mathematically, the moment is given by: Finding the centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped lamina
M =F ×d involves suspending the object from different points and
where d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the using a plumb line to mark the vertical line through which it
line of action of the force. hangs. The centre of gravity is where these lines intersect.
The unit of moment is the Newton metre (N m).

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Momentum (p) is the product of an object's mass (m) and


its velocity (v ).
Mathematically, p = mv
It is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and
direction.
The SI unit of momentum is kilogram metre per second
(kgm/s) or newton second (N s).
Conservation of Momentum

The total momentum of a closed system of objects remains


constant if no external forces act on it (such as friction or
air resistance).
Stability and Toppling
This principle is known as the conservation of momentum.
The stability of an object depends on the position of its Momentum is conserved in collisions (both elastic and
centre of gravity relative to its base. inelastic) and explosions. For example, in a collision, the
An object is stable if its centre of gravity remains over its total momentum before and after the collision remains the
base of support. same.
Toppling occurs when the vertical line through the centre of
pinitial = pfinal
gravity falls outside the base of support.
​ ​

Increasing the base area and lowering the centre of gravity Example:
improves stability. A trolley of mass m1 = 3 kg moving with velocity u1 = 5
​ ​

Types of Equilibrium m/s collides and couples with a stationary trolley of mass
m2 = 2 kg. They move off together with the same velocity

Stable Equilibrium: An object returns to its original (v). We need to find (v).
position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ball in a bowl). 1. Calculate initial momentum (pinitial ): ​

Unstable Equilibrium: An object moves further away from pinitial = m1 ⋅ u1 = 3 kg ⋅ 5 m/s = 15 kgm/s
its original position when displaced slightly (e.g., a ruler
​ ​ ​

2. Calculate final momentum (pfinal ):


balanced on its edge).

Neutral Equilibrium: An object remains in its new position Since they move off together with velocity (v):
when displaced (e.g., a ball sitting on a flat surface). pfinal = (m1 + m2 ) ⋅ v = (3 kg + 2 kg) ⋅ v =
​ ​ ​

5 kg ⋅ v
3. Apply conservation of momentum (pinitial = ​

pfinal ): ​

15 kgm/s = 5 kg ⋅ v
4. Solve for (v):
v = 15 5kgm/s
kg
= 3 m/s ​

So, the velocity (v ) of the two trolleys moving together after


the collision is 3 m/s ​

Momentum Impulse

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS

Impulse (J ) is the change in momentum (Δp) of an object Kinetic Energy (Ek ): Energy possessed by an object due to

when a force acts on it over a period of time (Δt). its motion.


Mathematically, J = F Δt = Δp Ek = 12 mv 2 , where (m) is mass and (v) is velocity.
​ ​

Impulse is also a vector quantity and has the same direction Example Calculation: For a football of mass 0.4 kg moving
as the force causing it. at 20 m/s:
Ek = 12 × 0.4 × (20)2 = 80 J
​ ​

Force and Momentum: Potential Energy (Ep ):Energy an object has due to its

Relation of force to the rate of change of momentum: position or condition or configuration.


(F = Δp ), which is an alternative form of Newton's Ep = mgh , where (m) is mass, (g ) is acceleration due

Δt
to gravity, and (h) is height.

second law.
Example Calculation: For a 0.1 kg mass raised vertically by
1 m:
1.6. Energy, work and power Ep = 0.1 × 9.8 × 1 = 0.98 J

Types of energy stores Work


Chemical Energy: Energy stored in chemical bonds of Work (W ) is done when a force (F ) displaces a body
substances like food, fuels (oil, gas, coal, wood). through a distance (d) in the direction of the force.
Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy an object
Formula: W = F ⋅ d
possesses due to its position relative to a reference point
(usually the Earth's surface). Unit: The unit of work is the joule (J), where 1 J = 1 N ⋅ m
Elastic Strain Energy: Energy stored in an object when it is
compressed, stretched, or deformed.
Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by a moving object.
Electrostatic Energy: Energy stored in charged objects due
to their separation in an electric field.
Nuclear Energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom..
Internal (Thermal) Energy: Total energy stored in the
microscopic motions and interactions of particles within a
substance.

Energy Transfers Example Calculation


Mechanical Working: Transfer of energy by the action of a If a force of 50 N is used to move a crate 3 m horizontally:
force, like lifting a weight. W = 50 N × 3 m = 150 J
Electrical Working: Transfer of energy by an electric If lifting a mass of 3 kg vertically by 2 m (where g ≈
current, such as in batteries or electric motors. 10 m/s2 ):
Waves (Electromagnetic and Sound): Transfer of energy
W = 30 N × 2 m = 60 J
through waves, like light or sound waves.
Heating: Transfer of energy through thermal processes, Energy resources
like heating water in a boiler.

Principle of Conservation of Energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed


from one form to another. Thus the total amount of energy
is constant.
Energy Forms

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CAIE IGCSE PHYSICS
Energy Type Renewable or Non- Advantages Disadvantages
renewable
High energy density, readily Limited supply, environmental
Nuclear power stations use controlled nuclear fission
Fossil Fuels Non-renewable available during peak
demand.
pollution (CO2, SO2), finite
resource. reactions with uranium to generate heat.
Nuclear Fuels Non-renewable
Radioactive waste disposal
High energy output, low CO2 issues, potential for accidents
This heat is used to produce steam indirectly through a
emissions. (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima). heat exchanger.
Abundant, no emissions Intermittent availability, high
Solar Energy Renewable during operation, diverse initial costs for large-scale The steam, similar to fossil fuel stations, drives turbines
applications. installations.
Clean energy source, connected to generators to produce electricity.
Visual and noise impacts,
Wind Energy Renewable abundant in suitable
locations. intermittent nature of wind. The operation involves the steam passing through a
Wave Energy Renewable
Renewable, predictable in
coastal areas with consistent
Technologically challenging,
potential environmental
turbine's fixed blades (stator) onto the rotating blades
waves. impacts. (rotor), where the expansion of steam energy is converted
Predictable and consistent, High infrastructure costs,
Tidal Energy Renewable minimal greenhouse gas environmental impacts on into rotational motion.
emissions. marine ecosystems.
Disruption of aquatic The rotational motion of the rotor then drives the electrical
Reliable, long operational
Hydroelectric
Energy Renewable ecosystems, potential
life, minimal greenhouse gas displacement of communities, generator, producing electricity for consumption.
emissions. limited suitable sites.
Geothermal
Energy Renewable Reliable, low emissions,
constant energy source.
Limited to geologically active
areas, high upfront costs for Power
exploration and drilling.
Competition with food
Biofuels Renewable Renewable, lower emissions
compared to fossil fuels. production, land use issues, The power of a device is the work it does per second, or the
varying energy content.
rate at which it does work.
How Fossil Fuels are used in Power Stations Power also represents the rate at which energy is
transferred from one store to another.
Coal: In coal-fired power stations, coal is burned in a boiler Formula:
work done
power = time
to produce heat. taken ​

Natural Gas: In gas-fired power stations, natural gas is P = t where W is the work done in time t
W ​

burned directly in a gas turbine. P = ΔEt where ΔE is the energy transferred in time t

The heat generated from burning these fuels is used to boil Key definition: Power is the work done per unit time and
water, creating high-pressure steam. the energy transferred per unit time.
The steam drives turbines connected to electrical Unit of power: watt (W ), where 1 W = 1 J/s
generators. Larger units:
Turbines are designed with sets of blades (rotor) mounted 1 kW = 1000 W = 103 W
on a shaft, which rotates when steam is directed onto 1 M W = 1,000,000 W = 106 W
them.
Example: If a machine does 500 J of work in 10 s, its power
As steam expands through the turbine, its energy is
is:
transferred to the rotor, causing it to spin. 500J
The spinning rotor generates electricity through 10s = 50W

electromagnetic induction in the generator. Efficiency


How hydroelectric power stations work % Efficiency formula for energy
They run using the kinetic energy generated from the flow
of water moving downstream. Efficiency (%) = ( Useful
Total Energy Input )
Energy Output
× 100% ​

This kinetic energy spin turbines which are connected to


generators. % Efficiency formula for power
These generators then produce electricity that can be used
by households. Efficiency (%) = ( Useful
Total Power Input )
Power Output
× 100% ​

Example a: Electric Motor


How Nuclear Fuels (uranium) are used in Power Stations
Given:

Energy input = 400 J


Work done on load = 300 J
Calculate Efficiency:

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Efficiency = ( 300 J
400 J ) × 100 = 75%
Pressure in a liquid increases with depth because the

Example b: Electric Drill


further down you go, the greater the weight of liquid above.
Given: Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions.
Pressure depends on the density of the liquid; the denser
Power input to drill = 300 J/s the liquid, the greater the pressure at any given depth.
Useful power output (excluding thermal losses) = 200 J/s The change in pressure Δp at a depth Δh below the
Calculate Efficiency: surface of a liquid with density ρ is determined by
considering a horizontal area A.
Efficiency = ( 200
300 J/s )
J/s
× 100 = 66.67%

Force acting vertically downwards on area A equals the
Sankey Diagrams weight of the liquid column of height Δh and cross-
sectional area A above it.
Sankey diagrams are used to represent energy transfers Volume of the liquid column: ΔhA
and efficiencies visually. Mass of the liquid column: m = ρΔhA (mass =
They show how input energy is divided into useful output density × volume)
energy and wasted energy. Weight of the liquid column: mg = ρΔhAg
The width of the arrows in a Sankey diagram is proportional
Force on area A: ρΔhAg
to the amount of energy they represent.
Pressure due to the liquid column:
A wide arrow represents a large amount of energy, while a
narrow arrow represents a small amount. pressure = force
area ​

ρΔhAg
A
= ​ ρgΔh
Formula: Δp = ρgΔh
Δp is the change in pressure beneath the surface of the
liquid at depth Δh due to the weight of a liquid of density ρ
g is the gravitational field strength
This pressure acts equally in all directions at depth Δh
and depends only on Δh and ρ.
Value will be in pascals (P a) if Δh = is in meters (m) and
(ρ) is in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³).

1.7. Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area.
Formula:
pressure = force
area ​

Key definition: Pressure is the force per unit area.


Unit of pressure: pascal (P a), where 1 P a = 1 N /m²
Greater area over which a force acts results in less
2. Thermal Physics
pressure.
2.1. Kinetic Particle Model of Matter
Liquid Pressure
States of Matter

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Particles in solids vibrate in fixed positions at room


temperature.
Heating solids increases particle vibrations, raising their
average kinetic energy.
Cooling a solid reduces particle vibrations until absolute
zero (-273°C or 0 K) stops all motion.
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature
achievable.
Pressure and Kinetic Energy
Matter consists of tiny particles like molecules and atoms.
Matter exists as solids, liquids, or gases, each with different Gases have particles moving randomly at high speeds.
characteristics. Each gas particle collision with a container wall changes its
Solids have a definite shape and volume, and particles are momentum, creating a force.
close together in fixed positions. The average force per unit area on container walls remains
Liquids have a definite volume and take the shape of their constant at a constant temperature.
container. The particles are further apart and can slide over Increasing temperature raises collision frequency,
each other. increasing average force and gas pressure.
Gases have no definite shape or volume, and particles
Effect on Pressure of a Change in Temperature (Constant
move much further apart and freely.
Volume)
Brownian Motion
Heating a gas increases the kinetic energy of its particles.
Higher kinetic energy leads to more frequent and energetic
collisions with the container walls.
Increased collisions result in higher pressure according to a
gas law:
( PV = nRT )
Effect on Pressure of a Change in Volume (Constant
Temperature)

Describes random motion of particles in fluids (liquids and


gases) and is caused by collisions with smaller, faster-
moving particles.

Temperature and kinetic energy

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Reducing the volume of a gas increases the concentration


of particles.
More particles per unit volume lead to more collisions with
the container walls.
The pressure increases proportionally to the decrease in
volume:

Variations in Gas Pressure with Volume

Boyle's Law states that at constant temperature, the


product of pressure and volume is constant:
Shrink-fitting: Cooling components contracts them, fitting
(p1 V1 = p2 V2 )
​ ​ ​ ​ tightly into other parts upon warming. Used in
manufacturing for tight connections without fasteners.
Graphing pressure ( p ) against the reciprocal of volume Lid Removal: Expanding metal lids with hot water loosens
( V1 ) gives a straight line.

them from glass jars, leading to easier opening.


Absolute Zero and Kelvin Temperature Scale: Precautions
Absolute zero, at −273°C or 0 K, is the lowest possible Expansion joints are spaces left between rail tracks used in
temperature. railways, and pipes to allow for thermal expansion without
Kelvin scale temperatures are derived by adding 273 to damage
Celsius temperatures: (T (K) = θ(°C) + 273)
In the Kelvin scale, all temperatures are always positive and Internal Energy and Heating
directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of Internal energy increases when an object is heated.
particles. Different materials require varying amounts of heat to raise
their temperatures due to differences in specific heat
2.2. Thermal properties and temperature capacity.
Specific heat capacity (c) measures the amount of heat
Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1
Solids and Liquids: When heated, particles vibrate more, degree Celsius per unit mass.
causing them to push apart slightly, resulting in expansion. Temperature and Thermal Energy
Gases: Heating increases particle speed and collisions with
container walls, which causes container expansion to Temperature is related to the average kinetic energy of
maintain pressure. particles.
Thermal energy is the total energy of particles in a
Applications substance, and more particles can hold more total thermal
Bimetallic Strips: Made from metals with different energy even if they have lower individual particle energies.
expansion rates (e.g., copper and iron). Used in: Heat Transfer and Equilibrium
Fire Alarms: Bends to complete an electrical circuit
when exposed to heat, triggering alarms. Heat transfers from higher to lower temperature bodies
Thermostats: Maintains temperature by bending to until thermal equilibrium is reached.
break or complete electrical circuits This transfer is caused by collisions between particles,
making their average kinetic energies equal.
Specific Heat Capacity

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Specific heat capacity (c) is defined as the energy required


per unit mass per unit temperature increase, measured in
joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/(kg°C)
The formula relating heat energy (ΔE ), mass (m), specific
heat capacity (c), and temperature change (Δθ) is: \n
ΔE = mcΔθ
Specific heat capacity quantifies how much heat energy is
needed to raise the temperature of a substance. Materials
with higher specific heat capacities require more heat
energy per unit mass to achieve the same temperature
change.

Worked Example Calculation Evaporation


Given:
Higher temperatures, larger surface areas, and wind or
Heat energy supplied, (ΔE = 20000, J) draughts increase the rate of evaporation.
Mass of the substance, (m = 5, kg) Energy is transferred to the surroundings from the liquid
Temperature change, (Δθ = 10°C) during evaporation, cooling the liquid.
Calculate the specific heat capacity (c) of the substance. Evaporation cools the body through sweat, helping to
maintain a constant temperature.
Formula:
Differences between boiling and evaporation
The specific heat capacity (( c )) is given by: Feature Boiling Evaporation
ΔE Occurs at a specific boiling Occurs at any temperature below the
c = mΔθ ​
Temperature temperature. boiling point.
Process Bubbles of vapour form within the Occurs at the surface of the liquid.
liquid.
Substituting the given values: Energy Requires sufficient heat to reach Requires less heat and occurs due to
Requirement boiling point. energetic particles escaping.
c = 20000
5×10 ​

Speed Rapid compared to evaporation. Slower compared to boiling.


Calculation: Throughout
Liquid?
Happens throughout the entire
volume of the liquid. Happens only at the liquid's surface.

c = 20000
50
2.3. Transfer of thermal energy

c = 400J/(kg°C)

Change of State Conduction

Heating can change a solid to a liquid (melting) and a liquid Conduction is heat transfer through matter from hot to cold
to a solid (freezing). without moving matter.
Pure substances melt and freeze at specific temperatures, Metals conduct heat well (e.g., copper, aluminum);
such as water at 0°C. insulators (wood, plastic) are poor conductors.
Melting involves particles of a solid overcoming Metals feel colder due to rapid heat transfer from the hand
intermolecular forces to become a liquid. compared to insulators at the same temperature.
Solidification (freezing) involves the transfer of potential Liquids and gases conduct heat slowly because the particles
energy from particles to surroundings as a liquid becomes are further apart and need time to transfer energy to each
solid. other.
Vaporisation requires substantial energy to overcome Metals transfer heat via fast-moving free electrons, raising
intermolecular forces in a liquid to become gas (vapour). temperatures in cooler areas and lattice vibrations.
Condensation involves gas particles losing potential energy Non-metals transfer heat through slower atomic or
to their surroundings as they return to a liquid state. molecular vibrations, lacking free electrons.

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Surfaces emit radiation differently when hot.


Dull black surfaces emit more than shiny surfaces.
All bodies emit radiation above absolute zero.
Greenhouse effect

Greenhouse gases trap heat similar to glass in a


greenhouse.
Balance between incoming solar radiation and emitted
Earth radiation crucial for climate stability.
Increased carbon dioxide and methane upset this balance
Convection and absorb more infrared which cannot escape.

Heat transfer method in fluids like liquids and gases.


Transfer of thermal energy by movement of the matter
itself.

Convection Currents

Warm fluids rise because they expand and become less


dense.
Cooler, denser fluids sink and replace the rising warm fluid.

This movement of fluids due to temperature differences is


known as a convection current.

3. Waves
3.1. General Properties of Waves
Progressive waves carry energy from one place to another
without transferring matter.
Two Types of Progressive Waves

Transverse waves
Longitudinal waves
Radiation

A method of thermal energy transfer which occurs without


matter, even in vacuum.
Emits as electromagnetic waves, travels at speed of light.

Absorption and Reflection

Surfaces vary in radiation absorption.


Black surfaces absorb more than shiny white ones.

Emission
Surface Type Absorption of Radiation Emission of Radiation Reflectivity
Shiny White Poor absorber Poor emitter High
Dull Black Good absorber Good emitter Low

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Wavelength (λ): Distance between 2 successive crests/ Straight water waves (transverse waves) hit a metal strip in
troughs. a ripple tank at x° angle.
Frequency (f ): Number of complete waves created per Angle of incidence (i) and angle of reflection (r)are both x
second, measured in hertz (Hz). °.
Wave speed (v): Distance moved by a crest or any point on Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection: (i = r)
the wave in 1 second. Same wavelength as reflected wave
Amplitude (a): Height of a crest or depth of a trough from Same wave speed
the undisturbed or mean position.
Phase: Particles in ‘phase’ have the same speed and
direction of vibration.
Wave equation

Faster vibration produces a shorter wavelength.


Therefore, a higher frequency results in a smaller
wavelength.
Wave equation:
v = f x λ

Wavefronts and rays


Refraction
Wavefront: A straight line where the wave has the same Continuous straight waves in shallow water have shorter
phase at all points. wavelengths than in deeper water.
Ray: Line drawn at right angles to a wavefront showing the Waves in shallower water have a smaller speed and smaller
direction of travel. wavelength.
When waves move from less dense to more dense regions,
they bend towards the normal (water waves speed up due
to larger wavelengths), (light waves slow down due to
smaller wavelengths)
When waves move from dense to less dense regions, they
bend away from normal (water waves slow down due to
smaller wavelengths), (light waves speed up due to bigger
wavelengths)

Reflection of a wave at a plane surface

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Reflection of light against a plane mirror

The normal is perpendicular to the mirror at the point


where the incident ray strikes.
The angle of incidence (i) is between the incident ray and
the normal.
The angle of reflection (r) is between the reflected ray and
the normal.

The law of reflection states that the angle of


incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Diffraction

Straight water waves meet narrow gaps and create circular


wavefronts.
Diffraction can also occur at the edges of obstacles causing
wave spreading.

Real and Virtual Images

A real image can be produced on a screen and is formed by


rays that pass through the screen.
A virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
A virtual image is produced by rays that seem to come from
it but do not pass through it.
The image in a plane mirror is virtual. Rays from an object
are reflected at the mirror and appear to come from a point
behind the mirror where the rays would meet when
3.2. Reflection and Refraction of Light extrapolated (extended) backward.

Light travels in a path called a ray.


A beam is a stream of light shown by several rays.
Beams can be parallel, diverging, or converging.

Speed of Light
The speed of light is about 1 million times faster than the Refractive Index
speed of sound.
The speed of light is 3 × 108 meters per second.

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Light refracts due to speed change when entering a A converging (or convex) lens is thickest in the center and
different medium. bends light inwards.
In air, light travels at 300, 000 km/s (3 × 10⁸ m/s) A diverging (or concave) lens is the thinnest in the center
In glass, it slows to 200,000 km/s (2 × 10⁸ m/s) and spreads the light out.
Refractive index (n) is the ratio of light speed in air to light The center of a lens is its optical center (C) and the line
speed in the medium. through C at right angles to the lens is the principal axis.
300,000km/s
For glass: n = 200,000km/s = 32 = 1.5
Principal focus
​ ​

Refractive index is the ratio of speeds of a wave in two


different regions. When a beam of light (parallel to the principal axis) passes
sin(i) through a converging lens, it refracts to converge at a point
Experimentally it is true that n = sin(r) ​ where (i) is the
angle in air and (r) is the angle in glass. called the principal focus (F ).
Higher refractive index means greater bending of light as it The principal focus of a converging lens is a real focus.
slows down more. A diverging lens has a virtual principal focus behind the
lens, from which the refracted beam appears to diverge.
Critical Angle A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side, each
equidistant from the optical center (C).
When light passes from an optically denser to an optically The distance (CF ) is the focal length (f ) of the lens.
less dense medium at small angles of incidence, there is a
strong refracted ray and a weak reflected ray.
Increasing the angle of incidence increases the angle of
refraction.
Critical angle (c) occurs when the angle of refraction is 90°.
For angles of incidence greater than (c), light undergoes
total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection means that the light does not cross
the boundary and reflects inside the denser medium.
For the critical angle: sin(c) = n1 where n is the refractive

index.
Ray diagrams
A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the
principal focus (F ).
A ray through the optical center (C) is undeviated (not
refracted) for a thin lens.
A ray through the principal focus (F ) is refracted parallel to
the principal axis.
The intersection of rays (in one beam) after refraction gives
the location of the image.

How to draw a ray diagram step-by-step


Parallel Ray (Ray 1):
3.3. Lenses
Converging and Diverging Lenses

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Object Position Image Position Image Nature Image Size
Draw a straight line (parallel to the principal axis). At 2F At 2F Real, inverted Same size
Between 2F and F Beyond 2F Real, inverted Larger
Start the line from the top of the object towards the lens. At F At infinity Real, inverted Infinitely large
After refraction through the lens, draw this direct ray Between F and lens On the same side of lens Virtual, upright Larger

through the focal point F on the opposite side of the lens.

Central Ray (Ray 2):

Draw a straight line from the top of the object through the
optical center C of the lens.
This ray will continue in the same direction without bending Applications of Lenses in Vision Correction
at all.
Short-Sightedness (Myopia)
Cause: The eye lens focuses light in front of the retina
instead of on it. This causes distant objects to appear
blurry.
Correction: A diverging (concave) lens is used to spread
out light rays before they enter the eye, so the lens can
focus them correctly on the retina.
Long-Sightedness (Hypermetropia)
Image formed: Cause: The eye lens focuses light behind the retina. This
causes nearby objects to appear blurry.
These two will intersect on the opposite side of the lens to Correction: A converging (convex) lens is used to focus
form the image of the object. light rays closer together before they enter the eye, so
they focus correctly on the retina.

3.4. Dispersion of Light


Refraction by a Prism

In a triangular glass prism, a ray bends due to refraction at


Magnification each surface.
The bending at the first surface combines with the bending
The linear magnification (M ) is given by: at the second surface.
image size
M = object size
​ This combined change in direction is called the deviation.
Magnification can also be expressed as: Unlike in a parallel-sided block, where the emergent
distance of image from lens
M = distance (exiting) ray remains parallel to the incident ray, these
of object from lens

Image properties at different object positions are shown bendings do not cancel out in a prism.
below: Dispersion

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When white light passes through a triangular glass prism, it Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a
separates into a band of colors known as a spectrum. vacuum, approximately 3 × 108 m/s.
This separation of colors is called dispersion and occurs They can undergo reflection, refraction, and diffraction and
because the refractive index of glass varies with the are transverse waves.
wavelength of light. They follow the wave equation v = f λ, where (v ) is the
White light consists of many colors with different speed of light, (f ) is the frequency, and (λ) is the
wavelengths, and the prism separates them based on their wavelength.
refractive indices. Higher frequency means smaller wavelength and therefore
The colors of the visible spectrum, from longest to shortest more energy carried.
wavelength, are: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,
and violet Radio Waves and Microwaves
Red light, with the longest wavelength and lowest
frequency, is refracted the least by the prism. Radio waves are the longest-wavelength electromagnetic
Violet light, with the shortest wavelength and highest waves used for communication, radio and television
frequency, is refracted the most by the prism. transmission, astronomy, and radio frequency
identification.
Microwaves have shorter wavelengths than radiowaves and
are used in telecommunications, satellite communication,
radar, and microwave ovens.
Infrared Radiation

Detected as heat by the body; used in thermal imaging,


heating, and remote controls.
Also used in communication (optical fibers), electric grills,
and intruder alarms.
However, high-intensity infrared can cause burns and eye
damage.
3.5. Electromagnetic Spectrum Visible Light
Light waves and Electromagnetic Spectrum Red light has the longest wavelength, and violet light has
the shortest.
Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which Monochromatic light consists of one color (single
extends beyond visible light in both directions (with greater frequency), where frequency is more responsible than
wavelength vs. smaller wavelength) wavelength to express the colour.
The spectrum includes gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, Visible light enables vision and is used for illumination and
infrared, microwaves, and radio waves. photography.
Wavelength increases from gamma rays to radio waves, Optical instruments like microscopes and telescopes use
while frequency increases from radio waves to gamma rays. light properties to form images.

Ultraviolet Radiation

Shorter wavelengths than visible light; causes sunburn and


skin damage.
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves Used in fluorescent applications (e.g., security marking,
water treatment, artificial skin-tanning) and sterilising
water.
Can be harmful in high doses.

X-rays and Gamma Rays

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Longitudinal Waves
X-rays have smaller wavelengths than ultraviolet rays and
are used in medical imaging, security screening, and Sound waves are longitudinal
industrial inspection. Particles in the medium (like air or water molecules) vibrate
Gamma rays are highly penetrating (smallest wavelength back and forth parallel to the direction of wave
and largest frequency) and used in cancer detection cancer propagation.
treatment to kill cells, sterilization, and material inspection. This creates areas of compression (where molecules are
closer together) and rarefaction (where they are far apart)
Communication Systems as the wave travels through the medium.
The movement of particles transfers energy through the
Below are the differences between digital and analog
signals: medium.
This vibration causes the sound to be heard
Aspect Digital Signals Analog Signals
Signal Type Discrete, binary (0s and 1s)
Continuous, varying amplitude and
frequency
Compressions and Rarefactions
Transmission Higher transmission rates Limited by bandwidth and signal
Rate degradation over distance Sound waves are made of compressions (C ) and
Examples Digital data, internet signals, computer Audio signals, analog television, older
memory telephone systems rarefactions (R) as they move through a medium.
Compressions are regions where air molecules are densely
packed together and the regions have higher pressure.
Rarefactions are regions where air molecules are less
densely packed and the regions have lower pressure.

Frequency and Wavelength


Infrared Optical Fibers
Frequency (f ) of a sound wave is the number of complete
Infrared optical fibers use the principle of total internal wave cycles per second and is measured in Hertz (Hz ).
reflection to make infrared or light travel along the fiber Higher frequencies mean higher-pitch sounds, while lower
without much loss. frequencies mean lower-pitch sounds.
Used for long-distance data transmission, offering high Wavelength (λ) is the distance between two consecutive
bandwidth and low signal loss compared to electrical compressions or rarefactions in a sound wave.
transmission. The speed of sound (v ) in a medium is determined by the
product of its frequency and wavelength: (v = f λ).

Limits of hearing

Humans can only hear sound frequencies ranging from


about 20Hz (low pitch) to 20,000Hz (high pitch).
The upper limit of audibility decreases with age due to
changes in the sensitivity of the ear.
Audibility can also be affected by the intensity (loudness) of
the sound which is determined by amplitude.
3.6. Sound

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Reflection of sound (Echo)
Place two microphones a known distance (like 10 meters)
Sound waves reflect off hard and flat surfaces like how light apart.
reflects off a mirror. Connect microphones to an oscilloscope to detect the
When sound reflects, it creates an echo, which is a sound.
repetition of the original sound heard after a short delay. Produce a sound source equidistant from both points and
start timing when the sound is produced.
Stop timing when the sound is detected at the second
point.
Use the formula (v = dt ), where (d) is the known distance

between the two microphones and (t) is the measured time


interval between detection at the two points.

Speed of Sound

The speed of sound in air is approximately 330–350 meters


per second (m/s) at room temperature.
In other materials, such as water (with a speed of approx.
1500m/s) or steel (with a speed of approx. 5100 m/s), the
speed of sound may vary due to differences in the density. Musical Notes
Temperature affects the speed of sound in air and it
increases with temperature because warmer air molecules
move faster.

Measurement of the Speed of Sound

Echo Method
Stand at a known distance (like more than 300 meters) from
a large wall.
Clap hands or produce a sharp sound and start a stopwatch
simultaneously.
Wait for the distinct echo from the surface and stop the
stopwatch when you hear it.
Calculation: Use the formula (v = 2dt ), where (d) is the

distance to the surface and (t ) is the time interval


measured with the stopwatch.

Note: Twice the distance is used because the


sound travels away from you and then back
again, covering the entire distance two times.

Direct Method

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The pitch of the note is determined by the frequency of the Magnetic poles attract magnetic materials and are found
sound wave (higher frequencies produce higher pitch near the ends of magnets.
notes). Poles always come in pairs: north and south.
Loudness is determined by the amplitude of vibrations ( Every magnet has a North Pole (N ) and a South Pole (S ).
greater amplitude produces louder sounds) The North Pole of a magnet points towards the Earth's
Quality (timbre) of a sound is its unique shape or texture, geographic North Pole.
caused by the instrument's construction.
Law of Magnetic Poles

Similar poles (N − N or S − S ) repel each other.


Opposite poles (N − S ) attract each other.
The attraction or repulsion decreases as poles move farther
apart.

Ultrasound Induced Magnetism


Ultrasound refers to sound waves with frequencies above Magnetic materials can become magnetized when near a
the upper limit of human hearing (> 20, 000Hz ). magnet.
It is used in medical imaging and industrial applications for
precision and non-destructive testing. Magnetisation of Iron and Steel
Ultrasound waves behave similarly to audible sound waves
but can penetrate materials and provide detailed imaging
without harmful effects.

4. Electricity and Magnetism


4.1. Simple Phenomena of Magnetism
Magnetic Materials

Ferromagnetic materials like iron can be made into


magnets.
Magnetic materials are naturally attracted to magnets even
when not magnetized..
Magnetic Poles

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Iron nails and steel paper clips can be magnetised by A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where
hanging them from a magnet. magnetic forces act.
Each nail or clip magnetises the next in a chain, with unlike Field strength is higher where magnetic field lines are closer
poles attracting each other. together and lower where they are further apart.
Removing an iron chain by pulling the top nail causes it to Magnetic fields are shown using lines of force, showing the
collapse because iron shows temporary magnetism. direction from North to South poles.
Steel chains do not collapse when removed because they The density of these lines indicates field strength: closer
have permanent magnetism. lines represent stronger magnetic fields.
Soft materials (e.g. iron) are easily magnetised but lose
magnetism quickly.
Hard materials (e.g. steel) are harder to magnetise but
remain magnetised longer.

Electromagnets

They are formed from a coil of wire through which an


electrical current passes.
Magnetism is temporary and can be switched on and off,
Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials unlike permanent magnets.
Magnetic materials (iron, steel, nickel, cobalt) are attracted They contain a core of soft iron that only becomes
to magnets and can be magnetised. magnetised when current flows through the coil.
Non-magnetic materials (e.g., aluminium, wood) are not Factors Affecting Electromagnet Strength
attracted to magnets and cannot be magnetised.

Magnetic Fields

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Current Increase: Higher current in the coil results in Charges are produced by friction, which transfers electrons
stronger magnetism. between materials.
More Turns: Increasing the number of turns in coils around Electrons move between materials during rubbing; protons
the core increases magnet strength. remain in the nuclei and do not move.
Closer Poles: Moving the magnetic poles closer together
increases electromagnet strength. Units of charge

Charge is measured in coulombs (C ) and defined in terms


of the ampere (A)
The charge on an electron is (e = −1.6 × 10−19 ) C .

Electrons, Insulators, and Conductors

Insulators: Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; rubbing


can charge them statically.
Conductors: Electrons can move freely; they require
insulation to hold a charge.
Type Description Examples
Insulators Electrons are firmly bound to atoms; Plastics (polythene, cellulose acetate),
rubbing can charge them statically. Perspex, nylon
Conductors Electrons can move freely; require Metals, carbon
insulation to hold a charge.
4.2. Electrical quantities
Electric Fields
Electric Charge
When charges are near each other, they experience a force
Like/same charges (+ and + or – and – ) repel, while unlike known as the electric force.
charges (+ and –) attract. Electric field is a region where a charge feels a force due to
nearby charges.
Force Between Charges Uniform electric field exists between oppositely charged
The force between electric charges decreases as their parallel metal plates, shown by evenly spaced lines
separation increases. perpendicular to the plates.
Positive charges repel other positive charges and attract The direction of the electric field is indicated by arrows,
negative charges. representing the force acting on a small positive test charge
Negative charges repel other negative charges and attract (pointing away from positive charges and towards negative
positive charges. charges).

Charges, Atoms, and Electrons

Atoms consist of a central nucleus with protons (positive)


and electrons (negative) orbiting around it.
Protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges,
The Ampere and the Coulomb (units of current and charge)
making atoms electrically neutral overall.

Production of Charges

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Electric Current is defined as charge passing a point per Chemical actions inside a battery produce electron excess
unit time, symbolized as at the negative terminal and shortage at the positive
(I = Qt ). ​
terminal
Unit of current is the ampere (A), with one milliampere ( Battery maintains electron flow (electric current) in a
mA) equal to one-thousandth of an ampere and is connected circuit as long as chemical actions last.
measured by an ammeter. The battery does work when moving the charge around the
Unit of charge is the coulomb (C ), defined as the charge circuit.
passing a point when a steady current of 1 ampere flows Electromotive force (e.m.f .) is the electrical work done by a
for 1 second (1C = 1As). source in moving unit charge around a complete circuit.
Electromotive force is measured in volts (V ).
Charge Calculation
Q=I ×t Potential Difference
where Q is charge, I is current, and t is time in seconds. Electric current transfers energy from a battery to circuit
Conventional Current components and surroundings.
Conventional current flows from positive to negative Potential difference (p.d.) is the work done by unit charge
terminals of a battery, opposite to electron flow. passing through a component
Circuit diagrams show conventional current direction with P .d. is measured in volts.
arrows, while electrons move in the opposite direction. Voltage is sometimes used instead of p.d.
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb 1 V = 1 CJ ) ​

Direct and Alternating Current Formula: V = W


Direct Current (d.c.) Alternating Current (a.c.)
Q or W = Q × V ​

Electrons flow continuously in one direction. Electrons regularly change their direction of flow.
Provided by batteries Produced by generators. Resistance

Frequency of Alternating Current Electrons move more easily through some conductors
when p.d. is applied.
Frequency refers to the number of complete cycles per Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to current.
second. Good conductors have low resistance while poor
It is measured in Hertz (Hz ), where 1 Hz equals one cycle conductors have high resistance
per second. Ohm (Ω) is the unit of resistance.
Formula: R = VI ​

Variable Resistors

4.3. Voltage, Resistance and Power


Electromotive Force (e.m.f .)

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They can change current in a circuit (rheostat mode) or act Diode has small resistance when connected one way and
as a potential divider by dividing voltage across very large resistance when p.d. is reversed.
components as desired. It conducts electricity in one direction only, and it is a non-
ohmic conductor.

Resistance depends on the length, cross-sectional area, and


material of the wire
Resistance increases with length but decreases with a larger
cross-sectional area
Formula: (R ∝ Al )

Filament Lamp
I–V graphs and Ohm’s Law
Non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures
Metals and some alloys give I–V graphs that are straight I–V graph curve flattens as V and I increase, showing
lines through the origin, showing that I is directly increasing resistance with increasing current and increasing
proportional to V or that I ∝ V . temperature.
Doubling V doubles I .
Such conductors obey Ohm’s law: V = IR
Ohmic or linear conductors are the conductors where
resistance does not change with V .

Thermistor

Semiconductor Diode

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An increase in temperature generally increases the Power defined as work done or energy transferred per time
resistance of metals. taken: P = Wt ​

Thermistors' resistance is different and decreases with P is power in watts (W ), W is work done in joules (J ), t is
rising temperature. time in seconds (s)
It is a non-ohmic conductor For a steady current (I) in a device with a potential
difference (V ) across it, the work done has a formula W =
I ×t×V
Substituting work done with the power P = IV multiplied
by time in seconds (t), the energy transferred is: E =
Pt = IV t
Example

Lamp with 240 V supply and 0.25 A current


Power = P = IV = 240 V × 0.25 A = 60 W
60 J of energy transferred to the lamp each second

Voltage in terms of power and current


Light-dependent Resistor (LDR)
Volt can be defined as a watt per ampere: V = PI ​

Resistance of some semiconductors decreases with If all energy transferred to thermal energy in a resistor of
increased light intensity. resistance R:
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) use this property to P = V × I = IR × I = I 2 R
function. Doubling the current produces four times the thermal
I–V graph for an LDR is similar to that of a thermistor energy per second P = I 2 R
LDR is also a non-ohmic conductor. Larger unit for energy: kilowatt-hour (kWh)
1 kWh = 1000 Js × 3600 s = 3600000 J = 3.6 M J

The cost of electricity in houses is calculated by using kWh


where each kWh has a fixed price and is multiplied by the
units you consume.

4.4. Electric Circuits


Electrical component symbols

Power in Electric Circuits

Current in a Series Circuit

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In a series circuit, there is a single path for the current to In a series circuit, the total resistance (R0 ) is the sum of the
flow. individual resistances: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3 ​ ​ ​ ​

The current remains the same throughout: Given resistors R1 , R2 , and R3 the total voltage (V ) across
​ ​ ​

Current (I ) is consistent at every point in the series circuit. them is: V = I × R


The reading on an ammeter will be identical no matter
where it is placed in the circuit. Worked Example
Current in a Parallel Circuit For a 4.5 V battery across resistors of 3 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω in
series:
In a parallel circuit, components are connected side by side, Combined resistance: R0 = R1 + R2 + R3 = 3 Ω + 4 Ω + 5
providing alternative paths for current flow.
​ ​ ​ ​

Ω= 12 Ω
The total current is the sum of the currents through each
Current (I ): I = VR = 4.5V
12Ω = 0.375 A
branch
​ ​

If the total current from the source is (I0 ), and the current

p.d. across 4 Ω resistor: V2 = I × R2 = 0.375 A × 4 Ω = 1.5 ​ ​

through each branch is I1 , I2 and I3 then I0 = I1 + I2 +


​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
V
I3​

Resistors in Parallel

The combined resistance (R0 ) of resistors in parallel is ​

given by: R10 = R11 + R12 + R13 …






Two resistors R1 and R2 have resistance of R10 = R11 + R12 =


​ ​




1 ×R2
R0 = R

R1 +R2



Properties of Parallel Circuits

1. The current from the source is greater than the current


in each branch.
2. The combined resistance of parallel resistors is less than
that of any individual resistor.

Potential Difference (p.d.) in Series and Parallel Circuits 4.5. Applications of electric circuits
In a series circuit, the total potential difference across the Increase in Resistance of a Conductor
components is the sum of the individual potential
differences: V0 = V1 + V2 + V3
​ ​ ​ ​
In metals, current is carried by free electrons. As the
In a parallel circuit, the potential difference across each temperature of the metal increases:
component is the same as the potential difference across The atoms vibrate more, making it harder for electrons to
one branch: Vacross each branch = V0 ​ ​
move.
This results in an increase in resistance.
Cells, Batteries, and Electromotive Force (e.m.f .)
From Ohm's Law V = IR , if resistance (R) increases while
Cells in series increase the total e.m.f . of the battery. For maintaining a constant current(I), the potential difference (V )
example, if two 1.5 V cells are connected in series then the across the conductor also increases.
e.m.f .= 1.5 V + 1.5 V = 3.0 V Variable Potential Divider

Resistors in Series

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In a thermistor, resistance decreases with increasing An LDR’s resistance decreases with increasing light
temperature. intensity.
When it’s used in a potential divider circuit: In a circuit, as light intensity increases:
As temperature rises, the thermistor's resistance The LDR’s resistance decreases, allowing more current
decreases. to flow.
This lowers the combined resistance of the two This increase in current can light a lamp or cause other
resistors, increasing the current if the supply voltage actions.
remains constant.
The potential difference across the fixed resistor
increases relative to that across the thermistor.
A variable resistor can also act as a potential divider by
adjusting the position of the contact, changing the output
potential difference.

Thermistor
A thermistor's resistance decreases significantly with
temperature increase.
In a series circuit with a thermistor:
As temperature rises, its resistance drops, decreasing
Potential Divider the potential difference across it.
For two resistors R1 and R2 in series with a supply voltage (V ) This causes an increase in voltage across a series
resistor, which can trigger a relay or alarm.
​ ​

The total current (I) is given by: I = ​


V
R 1 +R 2 ​

Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Relays

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A relay allows a small current to control a larger current Damaged Insulation: Exposes wires, increasing shock and
needed to operate an appliance. fire risk.
In a switching circuit: Overheated Cables: Can lead to fire.
If the switching circuit output is high, a small current Damp Conditions: Increase shock severity due to reduced
flows through the relay, closing the mains switch. resistance.
This isolates the low voltage circuit from the high Excess Current: From overloaded plugs, extension leads,
voltage mains supply. and multiple sockets.
Electric Shock: Current flows from an electric circuit through
Light-Emitting Diode (LED) a person's body to earth.
An LED emits light when forward-biased (cathode Dry Skin: Resistance ~10,000 Ω and current around 24
connected to the negative terminal): mA (it is safe).
Reverse bias (anode connected to the negative terminal) Wet Skin: Resistance ~1,000 Ω and current ~240 mA (can
does not emit light and can damage the LED if the be deadly).
Larger currents are more dangerous.
reverse voltage exceeds 5 V .
Longer exposure increases risk.
A suitable resistor R (e.g. 300 Ω on a 5 V supply) is
needed to limit the current. Reducing Risk
Semiconductor Diode Turn off power before repairs.
Use earth pin and cord grips.
A diode allows current to pass in only one direction: Keep appliances dry and away from water.
Forward-biased: current flows when the anode is Avoid trailing cables and damage, especially with cutting
connected to the positive terminal and the cathode to tools.
the negative terminal.
Reverse-biased: the diode does not conduct and has First Aid for Electric Shock
high resistance.
Switch off the power if the person is still in contact with the
equipment.
Call for medical assistance.

Causes of fires

Flammable materials near hot appliances or wiring.


Overheated wiring produces excessive current and can lead
to fire.
Preventive Measures:
Match fuse rating to appliance.
Do not overload sockets or use too many adapters.
Use thick wires for high-power appliances.
House Circuits
4.6. Electrical safety
Dangers of Electricity

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Live and Neutral Wires: Both supply electricity and the Straight Wire and U-shaped Magnet
neutral is earthed. Wire held still between magnet pole leads to no induced
Earth Wire: Provides safety by connecting metal cases to current.
earth. Moving wire vertically (up or down) between poles induces
current because of changing magnetic flux (cutting
magnetic field lines)
Upward movement: current flows in one direction.
Downward movement: current flows in the opposite
direction.
Deflection on meter is temporary and occurs only while
wire is moving.

Switches and Fuses

Switches and fuses are in the live wire to prevent shocks.


Fuse breaks the circuit if the current exceeds safe levels.

Circuit Breakers
Electromagnetism breaks the circuit when current exceeds
a preset level.
Advantages: Faster operation and can be reset.
Bar Magnet and Coil (solenoid)
Earthing

Prevents shock by providing a path for fault currents.


Earth pin connects appliance metal cases to earth,
preventing them from becoming live.

Double Insulation

Appliances with two layers of insulation don’t need an earth


wire.

4.7. Electromagnetic induction


Process of generating electricity from a changing magnetic
field.

Electromagnetic Induction Experiments

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Inserting magnet into coil (solenoid) induces current in one Straight Wire:
direction. When current flows through a vertical wire, iron filings
A solenoid is a coil of wire wound in a helical shape that around it form circles.
generates a magnetic field when an electric current Meaning that around a straight wire, there are circular
passes through it. magnetic field lines.
Removing magnet from solenoid induces current in the Field direction changes with current direction (upwards
opposite direction. or downwards through the wire)
No current is induced when magnet is stationary inside Use right-hand grip rule: direction of thumb (upwards or
solenoid. downwards) indicates magnetic field direction by the
Current direction reverses with the direction of magnet remaining fingers (clockwise or anti-clockwise).
movement.
This also works if the solenoid is moved instead of the
magnet.

Solenoid
Factors Affecting Induced e.m.f . A long cylindrical coil produces a magnetic field similar
to a bar magnet.
Faster movement of magnet or coil increases induced e.m.f. End A behaves like the north pole, and end B behaves
More turns in the coil increase the induced e.m.f. like the south pole.
Stronger magnets increase the induced e.m.f. Right-hand grip rule: grip solenoid in current direction,
e.m.f . is directly proportional to the rate at which the thumb points to the north pole.
conductor cuts through magnetic field lines. Magnetic field inside the solenoid is stronger and
denser compared to outside.
Direction of Induced e.m.f . (Lenz’s Law)

Induced e.m.f . always opposes the change causing it.


If a magnet approaches a coil, the induced current
generates a magnetic field that opposes the motion.
If a magnet is withdrawn, the coil’s induced current
generates a field that attracts the magnet.
Magnetic Fields

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Variation of Magnetic Field Strength
A reed switch uses magnetic fields to control a circuit.
Magnetic field strength decreases with distance from the Operated by current flowing through a coil, which
wire. magnetizes reeds of magnetic material.
Field lines spread out as distance increases. Current flows: Reeds become magnetized, attract each
Increasing current strengthens the magnetic field and lines other, and close the circuit.
become closer together. Current stops: Reeds lose magnetization, separate, and
Reversing current direction reverses the direction of the open the circuit.
magnetic field.

4.8. Applications of electromagnetic


effects
Relay
A relay is a switch that operates using an electromagnet.
It allows one circuit to control another
When current flows through the coil, it magnetizes the soft
iron core.
The magnetized core attracts the L-shaped iron armature. Loudspeaker
The armature rocks on its pivot and closes contacts in
another circuit. It converts electrical signals into sound waves.
Varying currents pass through a coil placed in a magnetic
field.
Magnetic fields interact, causing the coil to vibrate.
A paper cone attached to the coil moves with it.
Vibrations create sound waves in the surrounding air.
Components
Coil: Receives electrical signals and vibrates.
Magnet: Provides the magnetic field for interaction.
Paper Cone: Moves with the coil to produce sound.

Components
Coil: Creates the magnetic field.
Soft Iron Core: Magnetized by the coil, attracts the
armature.
L-shaped Iron Armature: Moves to close or open
contacts.
Contacts: Switches the second circuit on or off.

Reed Switch

Electric Bell

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A device that produces sound by ringing is an electric bell Components


Pressing the bell push completes the circuit. Rectangular coil: Fixed up on an axle that can rotate.
Current flows through electromagnet coils, magnetizing C-shaped magnet: Provides the magnetic field.
them. Split-ring commutator: A copper ring split into two
Electromagnet attracts a soft iron bar (armature), causing halves, connected to the ends of the coil. It rotates with
the hammer to hit the gong. the coil.
The circuit breaks at contact screw point Brushes: Carbon blocks pressed against the commutator to
Electromagnet loses magnetism, armature returns to its supply current continuously.
original position.
The springy metal strip reconnects the circuit, and the cycle
repeats as long as the bell push is pressed.

Operation
When direct current (d.c.) flows through the coil, a force
acts on the coil due to the interaction with the magnetic
field.
4.9. Motors and generators This force creates a turning effect, causing the coil to rotate.
The split-ring commutator reverses the direction of current
Simple d.c. Electric Motor in the coil as it rotates, making sure there is continuous
rotation by maintaining the direction of force.

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Fleming’s Left Hand Rule is used for the d.c. As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, it cuts through the
motor field lines, inducing an electromotive force (e.m.f .)
The e.m.f . varies as the coil moves
Vertical Position: No e.m.f . as the coil cuts the least
number of field lines.
Horizontal Position: Maximum e.m.f . as the coil cuts the
most field lines.
The direction of e.m.f . reverses as the coil continues to
rotate, producing alternating current (a.c.) in the circuit.
The frequency of the a.c. is determined by the rotation
speed of the coil. For example, a coil rotating twice per
second generates an a.c. with a frequency of 2 Hz.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule is used for the a.c.


generator.
The a.c Generator
Components
Rectangular coil: Positioned between the poles of a C-
shaped magnet.
Slip rings: Connected to the ends of the coil, rotate with the
coil.
Carbon brushes: Press against the slip rings to conduct
current.

4.10. Transformers
The transformer changes alternating voltage to different
values.
Consists of primary and secondary coils on a soft iron core.
Coils can be wound on top of each other or separate limbs.
Mutual Induction

Operation

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This occurs when current changes in one coil, inducing a


voltage in a neighboring coil. 5. Nuclear Physics
Magnetic field lines from the primary cut through the
secondary coil, inducing voltage.
Induced voltage increases with a soft iron rod or complete 5.1. Nuclear model of the atom
iron ring core due to increased magnetic field lines.
Current atomic model

Electrons orbit a positively charged nucleus.


Mostly empty space between the orbits and the nucleus.

Scattering experiments by Ernest Rutherford

α-particles directed at thin gold foil.


Observations of α-particles:

Transformer Equation

The alternating voltage applied to the primary induces an


alternating voltage in the secondary.
V N
Relationship given by Vps = Nps
​ ​

​ ​

​ ​

Vp and Vs the primary and secondary voltages.


​ ​

Np and Ns are the primary and secondary turns.


​ ​

Step-up transformer: More turns are on secondary (Vs > ​

Observation Description Proof of atomic model


Vp ) .​

Most α-particles Passed through the gold foil


without deflection. Atom is mostly empty space.
Step-down transformer: fewer turns on secondary, (Vs < ​
Presence of a dense, positively
Some α-particles Deflected at small angles.charged nucleus which repels the
Vp ). ​
α-particles
Approximately 1 in 8000 α- Deflected back towards the source Nucleus is very small and dense
particles at large angles. compared to the rest of the atom.
Worked Example
Rutherford’s nuclear model
A transformer steps down the mains supply from 230V to
10V. Positive charge and most mass are concentrated in a small,
Turns ratio: Nps = 230V 23
N
10V = 1

​ ​ ​ dense nucleus.
Electrons orbit the nucleus at a large distance away.

If the secondary has 80 turns, the primary has 80 × 23= 18


2 turns. Nucleus and electrons occupy about one-million-millionth
of the atom’s volume.
Energy Losses
The nucleus
If V s stepped up, current I is stepped down
proportionally.
Ideal transformer (100% efficient): Ip Vp = Is Vs ​ ​ ​ ​

Ip and Is are primary and secondary currents.


​ ​

If V is doubled, I is halved.

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The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. Forms of the same element with the same number of
Three basic particles in an atom include protons, neutrons, protons but different number of neutrons.
and electrons. Example: Chlorine has isotopes 35 37
17 Cl and 17 Cl while ​ ​

Proton = a hydrogen atom minus an electron charge +1 Hydrogen has isotopes 1 H , deuterium 1 H , and tritium 31 H .
1 2 ​ ​ ​

, mass about 2000 times that of an electron.


Neutron: Uncharged and with a mass almost equal to Isotopes have identical chemical properties but
that of a proton. different physical properties.
Relative charges: Proton = +1 and neutron = 0 while
electron = -1. Nuclides
Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus and Radioactive isotopes are called radioisotopes or
are together called nucleons. radionuclides and have unstable nuclei.
Nuclear Energy

Einstein’s equation: E = mc2 , where E is energy, m is


mass, and c is the speed of light.
Mass loss in nuclear reactions results in energy release.
Nuclear reactions involve large energy changes compared
to other physical and chemical changes.
Nuclear fission

Uranium-235 is an isotope that undergoes fission when


struck by neutrons.
Fission breaks the nucleus into smaller radioactive nuclei,
Particle
Proton
Relative Mass
1
Relative Charge
+1
Location
In nucleus
releasing additional neutrons and energy.
Neutron 1 0 In nucleus Mass loss is converted into kinetic energy of fission
Electron 1
1840 ​ -1 Outside nucleus products.
Neutrons from fission can trigger further fission reactions.
In a neutral atom the number of protons equals the
number of electrons. Nuclear fusion
Atomic number (Z ): Number of protons in the nucleus (it
also equals the number of electrons). Nuclear Fusion is the joining of light nuclei to form a heavy
nucleus and releases energy
Mass number (A): Total number of nucleons (protons +
neutrons) in the nucleus. Nuclear Reactor
Relationship: Number of neutrons = A − Z .
Nuclide notation: Atom X is represented as A
Z X , where A

is the nucleon number and Z is the proton number.


Relative charge: Product of proton number (Z ) and the
charge of a proton.
Relative mass: Total mass of neutrons and protons;
approximately A times the mass of a proton.

Isotopes

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Ionisation: Neutral Atom + Electron → Negative Ion
Reactors use controlled chain reactions to produce energy. Geiger–Müller (GM) Tube
Control rods absorb neutrons to regulate the reaction.
Graphite moderates neutrons to slow down fission. The ionising effect of radiation is used to detect radiation.
Radiation entering a GM tube creates argon ions and
electrons, which then cause more ionisation.

Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation

Alpha Particles (α)


The nucleus with two protons and two neutrons
Stopped by thick paper; range in air is a few
centimetres.
The high ionising power of alpha particles is due to their
increased mass (compared to gamma and beta), so it's
more likely to ionise an atom
Deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Represented as helium ions with a double positive
5.2. Types of Radioactivity charge.
Beta Particles (β )
Natural Background Radiation fast-moving electron
Radiation sources include: Stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium; range in air
is several metres.
Cosmic rays (high-energy particles from the Sun) are mostly Lower ionising power than alpha particles.
absorbed by the atmosphere, but some reach the Earth's Deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
surface. Streams of high-energy electrons.
Radon gas present in the air. Gamma Radiation (γ )
Granite rocks in homes, particularly in Scotland, emit Electromagnetic radiation having high frequency
radioactive radon gas that can accumulate in poorly Most penetrating
ventilated areas. Stopped only by many centimetres of lead.
Radioactive potassium-40 is present in food and absorbed Least ionising power.
by our bodies. Not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Various radioisotopes are used in medical procedures. Electromagnetic radiation.
Radiation from nuclear power stations and fallout from
nuclear bomb testing

Ionising Effect of Radiation


The ability of radiation to make atoms lose or gain electrons
and become charged.
A charged electroscope discharges when a lighted match or
a radium source is brought near the cap.

Electroscope Discharge: Neutral Atom → Positive Ion +


Electron
A lighted match knocks electrons out of air molecules,
creating positive ions.
Radiation causes ionisation by neutralising the charge on
the electroscope.

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Type of Mass Charge Penetrating Power Ionising
Radiation Power
Alpha (α) High (Helium nucleus) +2 Low (stopped by paper) High
Alpha particles follow the rule of positive conventional
Beta (β) Low (electron) -1 Moderate (stopped by few mm of Moderate
current.
aluminum)
None (electromagnetic High (stopped by several cm of
Fleming’s left-hand rule is used with the middle finger
Gamma (γ ) 0 Low
wave) lead) pointing in the direction of alpha particles.
Beta particles are shown in the direction opposite to the
Particle Tracks middle finger, as they represent electron flow, which is the
opposite of conventional current.
Cloud chambers reveal the tracks of particles based on the
Gamma radiation is not deflected.
ionisation they produce.
Alpha Particles: Straight, thick tracks.
Beta Particles: Thin, straight or twisted tracks.
Gamma Rays: Eject electrons which then produce
tracks similar to β particles.

Electric deflection

The positive alpha particles are heavier and slowly deflect


towards the negative plate.
The negative beta particles are lighter and quickly deflect
towards the positive plate.
The neutral electromagnetic gamma radiation remains 5.3. Radioactive decay and half-life
undeflected.
Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay is the emission of an α-particle or a β-


particle from an unstable nucleus.
This changes the nucleus into that of a different element
until a stable element is formed.
These changes are spontaneous and random

Alpha Decay (α-decay)

An α-particle is a helium nucleus with two protons and two


neutrons.
When an atom undergoes α-decay, its nucleon number
decreases by 4 and its proton number decreases by 2.
Magnetic deflection Example: When radium (226 88 Ra) emits and alpha particle, it

222
becomes radon (86 Rn). ​

The equation for this decay is: 226 222


88 Ra →86 Rn +2 He
4 ​ ​ ​

Beta Decay (β-decay)

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In β-decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an The half-life of an isotope is the time taken for half the
electron. nuclei in a sample to decay.
The proton remains in the nucleus, while the electron is It is a measure of the rate at which a radioactive substance
emitted as a β-particle. decays.
The nucleon number stays the same, but the proton Each isotope has its own special half-life.
number increases by 1. It can be from fractions of a second to millions of years.
Example: Radioactive carbon 14 14
6 C decays into nitrogen (7 N)

A decay curve plots the activity of a sample over time,
by β-emission. showing the exponential decrease in activity.
The equation for this decay is: 14 14 0
6 C →7 N +−1 e
​ ​ ​
The activity decreases by half in each half-life period from
the previous half-life period.
Gamma Emission (γ-emission) Example: If a sample's activity is 80 decays per second, it
will reduce to 40 in one half-life, then to 20 in the next, and
After α- or β-decay, some nuclei are left in an excited or
so on.
energetic state. Radioactive decay is random and unpredictable; the exact
Rearrangement of protons and neutrons releases energy in time when a particular nucleus will decay cannot be
the form of γ-emissions.
determined.
γ-emissions are high-energy electromagnetic waves with no
The overall decay rate of a sample follows a predictable
mass or charge.
pattern, called its half-life.
Nuclear Stability

Stability of a nucleus depends on the number of protons (Z


) and neutrons (N ).
Stable nuclides fall within a specific stability level called the
stability line.
For light nuclides, N = Z .
For heavier nuclides, N > Z .
Unstable nuclides decay to move towards the stability line.
Nuclides above the stability line decay by β-emission to
decrease the N Z ratio.

Nuclides below the stability line decay by beta emission (β+)


to increase the N Z ratio.

Nuclei with more than 82 protons usually decay by α- 5.4. Safety precautions
emission.
Dangers of Nuclear Radiation
Half-Life

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Exposure to small doses of radiation is not damaging, but The Earth spins on its axis, causing day and night.
large doses are harmful to health. One complete rotation takes 24 hours.
Nuclear radiation's ionising effect damages cells and Day is for the half of the Earth facing the Sun and night for
tissues, it can lead to gene mutations. the half facing away.
Damage can cause cell death and cancers.
α-particles are less dangerous unless the source is ingested Rising and setting of the Sun
or inhaled. Earth's rotation causes the Sun to appear to move east to
β- and γ-radiation can cause radiation burns, eye cataracts, west daily.
and cancer.
Rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west at
Radiation hazard signs warn of the presence of radioactive equinoxes.
material. In northern hemisphere summer, the Sun rises north of
east and sets north of west.
In winter, rises and sets south of these points.

The seasons
Caused by Earth's motion around the Sun (365 days) and tilt
of its axis.

Motion of the Moon

Moon is a satellite of Earth, orbiting approximately every


month
Average distance from Earth is about 400,000 km.
Revolves on its axis, always showing the same side to Earth
Safety Precautions Reflects sunlight, has no atmosphere, weaker gravitational
field (one-sixth of Earth)
Minimize exposure time to radiation.
Keep a large distance between the radiation source and Phases of the Moon
individuals.
Use shielding materials that absorb radiation to protect Moon's appearance changes during its monthly orbit
people. New Moon: Moon between Sun and Earth, unlit side faces
In industry, sources are handled with long tongs and Earth
transported in thick lead containers. Crescent appears and increases until the first quarter (half
Workers are protected by lead and concrete walls and wear of the Moon visible)
radiation dose badges. Full Moon: Moon opposite Earth from the Sun, fully visible
Radiation dose badges track the amount of radiation
exposure over a period, typically one month.
The badge has windows that allow different types of
radiation to expose photographic film, indicating exposure
levels when developed.

6. Space Physics
6.1. The Earth and the solar system
Motion of the Earth

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Waning (where the moon's illumination decreases) phases
follow, leading to the last quarter and old crescent Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
Small, similar size
Solid and rocky with layered structures
High density
Formed close to the Sun where it was too hot for gases to
condense, allowing only metals and silicates to form solid
bodies
In the early Solar System, the Sun's heat caused lighter
gases to evaporate, leaving only heavy elements like iron
and silicon to form solid planets.

Outer Planets

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune


Much larger and colder
Orbital speed Mainly consist of gases, low density
Many moons and rings of icy materials
Average orbital speed: u = 2πr
T ​

Formed in cooler regions where gases could condense,


r is the average radius of the orbit. capturing even the lightest elements
T is the orbital period (time for one orbit) In the outer regions of the Solar System, lower
The Moon travels in a circular path around the Earth temperatures allowed gases like hydrogen and helium to
Distance traveled in one orbit is the circumference of remain in solid or liquid forms, leading to the formation of
the circle, 2πr gas giants with thick atmospheres.
Time taken for one orbit is T
Speed is distance divided by time, so orbital speed is
2πr
T ​

The Solar System

It contains:
The sun as a star
Eight planets in elliptical orbits (slightly oval orbits)
Dwarf planets and asteroids orbiting the Sun Asteroids
Moons orbiting many planets
Smaller bodies like comets and natural satellites Pieces of rock of various sizes, mostly between Mars and
Jupiter
Inner Planets Orbit around the Sun
Similar density to inner planets
Burn up in Earth's atmosphere as meteors

Comets

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Dust embedded in ice made from water and methane Distance from the Sun to Earth: approximately 150 million
Orbits the Sun in highly elliptical paths km (1.5 × 108 km)
Develop a bright long tail when approaching the Sun due to Speed of light: 300,000 kilometers per second (km/s)
radiation pressure
Using the formula for time:
Time = Distance
Speed ​

Substitute the values:


8
Time = 1.5×10
300,000 ​

Calculate the time:


8
Time ≈ 1.5×10
300,000
seconds ≈ 500 seconds

Convert the time from seconds to minutes:


Time ≈ 500 60 ≈ 8.33 minutes

It takes light from the sun around 8 minutes to reach the


Earth.

Elliptical Orbits 6.2. The sun


Planets, dwarf planets, and comets orbit the Sun in an Medium-sized star composed mainly of hydrogen and
ellipse helium.
Sun is at one focus of the ellipse, not the center Emits energy in the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet regions
Comets have highly elliptical orbits, while planets' orbits are of the electromagnetic spectrum.
more circular
Source of Energy
Origin of the Solar System
Energy from nuclear reactions in the core.
Formed from gravitational attraction pulling together Hydrogen undergoes nuclear fusion to form helium,
clouds of hydrogen gas and dust (nebulae) releasing energy.
Solar System formed about 4500 million years ago Energy from the core heats outer layers, causing them to
Planets formed from the disc of matter left over from the glow and emit radiation.
nebula that formed the Sun
Inner planets formed from materials with high melting
temperatures like metals and silicates
Outer planets formed from light molecules that existed in
solid icy forms, growing large enough to capture hydrogen

Travel Times Nuclear Reactions in Stars


Stars like the Sun are powered by nuclear fusion.
Core conditions

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Hot and dense enough for hydrogen to fuse into helium. End Stage
Fusion process releases energy, maintaining high core Use hydrogen rapidly, with a shorter stable phase
temperatures. (about 100 million years).
Some core energy moves to outer layers, which emit After helium fusion, core collapses into a red
electromagnetic radiation. supergiant.
Fusion of carbon into heavier elements occurs until iron
Light-years forms.
Distance light travels in a vacuum in one year. Supernova explosion releases energy and heavy
elements into space.
1 light-year = 9.5 × 10¹² km = 9.5 × 10¹⁵ m
Neutron Star: Dense core, may act as a pulsar.
Galaxies Black Hole: Extremely dense core with gravitational
Large collections of stars, gas, and dust. field so strong that even light cannot escape; identified
by X-ray radiation from nearby material.
6.3. Origin and life cycle of stars
Formation
Interstellar clouds of dust and gas collapse under
gravitational attraction.
A protostar forms as mass increases and core temperature
rises.
Hydrogen fuses into helium when the core is hot enough,
resulting in a star.

Star Types

Large mass: Blue or white stars.


Smaller mass: Yellow or red dwarfs (e.g., the Sun). 6.4. The universe
Life Cycle of Stars Milky Way
Stable Phase
Approximately 100,000 light-years in diameter.
Forces of gravity inward balance with thermal pressure Contains around 800 billion or more stars.
outward. A spiral galaxy with a central bulge and spiral arms.
Stable phase lasts up to 10 billion years.
Hydrogen converts to helium in the core. Redshift
Red Giant/Red Supergiant The phenomenon where light from distant galaxies shifts
towards the red end of the spectrum (longer wavelength).
As hydrogen depletes, the star becomes unstable. Light emitted from stars in distant galaxies appears redder
Core collapses; outer layers expand and cool. compared to light from closer galaxies.
Star turns into a red giant (or red supergiant if massive).
Helium fuses into carbon in the core. Doppler Effect
Low Mass Stars

End Stage
Core collapses into a white dwarf after all helium is
used.
Outer layers expelled, forming a planetary nebula.
White dwarf cools into a black dwarf over about a billion
years.

High Mass Stars (more than 8 times the Sun’s mass)

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Occurs when a source of waves (e.g., sound or light) moves Hubble’s Law: The relationship between the speed of
relative to an observer. recession (v ) and the distance (d) of galaxies is given by:
Approaching Source: Waves are compressed, resulting in a v = H0 × d ​

higher frequency and pitch (blue shift for light). Hubble Constant (H0 ): H0 = vd ​ ​ ​

Receding Source: Waves are stretched, resulting in a lower H0 measures the rate of the Universe's expansion. A higher
frequency and pitch (red shift for light).

value indicates a faster rate of expansion.


H0 is estimated to be approximately 2.2 × 10−18 s−1

Age Estimation: The age of the Universe is approximately:


Age of the Universe ≈ H10 ​

Detailed Calculation

Age of the Universe ≈ 2.2×101−18 s−1 ≈ 4.5 × 1017 s ​

4.5×1017 s
Age of the Universe ≈ 3.2×10 7 s/year ≈ 1.4 × ​

10
10 years ≈ 14 billion years

Speed of Recession

The speed at which distant galaxies are moving away can be


calculated from the amount of redshift observed.
Some of the most distant galaxies are receding at speeds
up to one-third the speed of light.
The observed redshift supports the idea that the Universe
is expanding, which is consistent with the Big Bang theory.
Big Bang Theory

Initial State: Proposes that the Universe began from an


extremely hot and dense state around 14 billion years ago.
Expansion: The Universe has been expanding ever since the
Big Bang.
Microwave Background Radiation

This radiation is a remnant from the Big Bang and fills the
entire Universe.
The radiation has been redshifted into the microwave
region due to the expansion of the Universe.
Provides strong evidence for the Big Bang theory and
insights into the early Universe.

Age of the Universe

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CAIE IGCSE
PHYSICS (0625)
THEORY

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