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Lithosphere – Study Notes
Unit I: Introduction to Environment (30 Questions) Environment: Components – Segments –
Atmosphere: Troposphere – Stratosphere – Mesosphere – Thermosphere – Lithosphere: Crust –
Mantle – Core – Hydrosphere: Fresh water and saline water -
Introduction
The lithosphere is the rigid, outermost layer of the Earth. It includes the crust and the
uppermost mantle and forms the continents and ocean floors. It is where human civilization
exists, agriculture is practiced, and natural resources like minerals and fossil fuels are found.
Understanding the lithosphere is essential in studying geology, natural hazards, soil science,
landforms, and human-environment interactions.
1. What is the Lithosphere?
Derived from the Greek words "lithos" (stone) and "sphaira" (sphere).
It is the solid outer part of the Earth.
Ranges from about 5 km under oceans to about 70 km under continents.
Divided into tectonic plates which move slowly over the asthenosphere.
Components:
Continental crust (granite-rich): Thick and less dense.
Oceanic crust (basalt-rich): Thin and more dense.
Upper mantle: Solid portion beneath the crust that contributes to plate movements.
2. Structure of the Earth
The Earth is composed of three major layers:
Layer Composition Depth Range
Crust Rocks, soil, minerals 0–70 km
Mantle Silicate rocks (magnesium, iron) 70–2900 km
Core Iron and nickel (liquid & solid) 2900–6371 km
The lithosphere includes the crust and the rigid upper mantle.
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. Crust – The Earth's Outer Shell
📌 Overview:
The crust is the thin, outermost layer of the Earth where we live.
It's like the "skin" of the Earth, floating on top of the mantle.
Types:
Continental Crust: Thicker (30–70 km), less dense, mostly granite.
Oceanic Crust: Thinner (5–10 km), more dense, mostly basalt.
Composition:
Made of solid rocks and minerals.
Elements: Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium.
🌡 Temperature:
Ranges from 0°C to 700°C, depending on depth.
2. Mantle – The Earth's Middle Layer
📌 Overview:
Lies beneath the crust and extends to about 2,900 km below the surface.
Makes up about 84% of Earth's volume.
Structure:
Upper Mantle (includes asthenosphere, partially molten and plastic-like).
Lower Mantle (more rigid due to pressure).
Composition:
Rich in silicate minerals containing magnesium and iron.
Rocks are in a semi-solid, flowing state.
🌡 Temperature:
Between 700°C to 4,000°C.
🔁 Convection Currents:
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Hot mantle rocks rise and cooler ones sink.
These currents drive plate tectonics, moving Earth's crust.
3. Core – The Earth's Inner Engine
📌 Overview:
The core is the central part of Earth, divided into two layers:
o Outer Core (liquid)
o Inner Core (solid)
Outer Core:
Depth: 2,900–5,100 km
State: Liquid
Composition: Mostly liquid iron and nickel
Temperature: 4,000–6,000°C
Function: Movements of this layer generate Earth’s magnetic field
Inner Core:
Depth: 5,100–6,371 km
State: Solid (due to immense pressure)
Composition: Iron and nickel
Temperature: Similar to the Sun's surface (~5,700°C)
3. Types of Lithosphere
a) Continental Lithosphere
Thicker (30–70 km), older, and less dense.
Composed mainly of granite.
Forms continents and large landmasses.
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b) Oceanic Lithosphere
Thinner (5–10 km), younger, and denser.
Composed mainly of basalt.
Forms ocean floors and mid-ocean ridges.
4. Composition of the Lithosphere
a) Minerals:
Naturally occurring, inorganic solids with a definite chemical composition.
Examples: Quartz, feldspar, mica, calcite, olivine.
b) Rocks:
Solid aggregates of one or more minerals.
Types of rocks:
o Igneous (formed from magma): e.g., granite, basalt.
o Sedimentary (formed from deposition): e.g., limestone, sandstone.
o Metamorphic (transformed by heat/pressure): e.g., marble, slate.
5. Landforms of the Lithosphere
Landforms are the natural physical features of the Earth’s surface, shaped by geological and
geomorphological processes.
a) Mountains
Elevated landforms formed by tectonic forces or volcanic activity.
Examples: Himalayas, Andes.
b) Plateaus
Flat elevated areas.
Example: Deccan Plateau (India), Colorado Plateau (USA).
c) Plains
Flat and low-lying areas formed by river deposits.
Fertile and densely populated regions.
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d) Valleys, Basins, Volcanoes
Valleys: Depressions formed by rivers or glaciers.
Basins: Low areas often filled with sediments.
Volcanoes: Openings through which lava, ash, and gases erupt.
6. Plate Tectonics and the Lithosphere
The lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates that float over the asthenosphere.
a) Major Plates:
Eurasian, African, Indo-Australian, Pacific, North American, South American, Antarctic.
b) Plate Boundaries:
1. Divergent: Plates move apart (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
2. Convergent: Plates move toward each other (e.g., Himalayas).
3. Transform: Plates slide past each other (e.g., San Andreas Fault).
c) Effects of Plate Movements:
Earthquakes
Volcanic eruptions
Mountain formation
Ocean trench development
7. Natural Resources of the Lithosphere
The lithosphere contains a wealth of natural resources crucial to human development.
a) Minerals:
Metallic: Iron, copper, bauxite, gold.
Non-metallic: Mica, limestone, gypsum.
b) Fossil Fuels:
Coal, petroleum, natural gas – sources of energy formed from ancient organisms.
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c) Soil:
Top layer of the lithosphere vital for agriculture.
Formed by weathering of rocks and organic matter.
8. Soils and Soil Formation
a) Definition:
Soil is the uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust that supports plant life.
b) Soil Profile:
O Horizon: Organic matter.
A Horizon: Topsoil, rich in nutrients.
B Horizon: Subsoil, less organic matter.
C Horizon: Weathered parent rock.
c) Soil Formation Factors:
Parent rock
Climate
Organisms
Time
Relief (topography)
d) Types of Soil:
Alluvial: Fertile, found in river valleys.
Black Soil: Ideal for cotton, found in volcanic regions.
Red Soil: Rich in iron, found in dry areas.
Laterite Soil: Leached soils in high rainfall areas.
9. Processes Affecting the Lithosphere
a) Internal Processes (Endogenic):
Caused by forces inside the Earth.
Examples: Volcanism, earthquakes, mountain building.
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b) External Processes (Exogenic):
Caused by weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition.
Shaped by agents like rivers, glaciers, wind, and sea waves.
10. Environmental Issues Related to the Lithosphere
Human activities are degrading the lithosphere, leading to long-term impacts.
a) Soil Erosion:
Removal of topsoil due to wind, water, or human activity.
Leads to desertification and reduced agricultural productivity.
b) Deforestation:
Clearing of forests for urbanization and agriculture.
Causes loss of biodiversity, increases erosion.
c) Mining:
Extraction of minerals disrupts land and pollutes water and air.
d) Urbanization and Land Use Change:
Concrete surfaces reduce groundwater recharge.
Agricultural land converted to buildings leads to food insecurity.
11. Conservation of the Lithosphere
a) Sustainable Agriculture:
Use of organic farming, crop rotation, and contour plowing to prevent soil degradation.
b) Afforestation and Reforestation:
Planting trees to prevent erosion and maintain ecological balance.
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c) Regulated Mining Practices:
Reduce environmental impact by using eco-friendly technologies and reclamation
methods.
d) Soil Conservation Techniques:
Terracing, strip cropping, mulching, check dams.
12. Importance of the Lithosphere
Supports Life: Provides habitat and food sources.
Agricultural Base: Soil allows the cultivation of crops.
Natural Resource Reservoir: Supplies minerals, water, and fossil fuels.
Foundation for Infrastructure: Buildings, roads, and cities are all based on land.
Environmental Regulator: Participates in carbon and nutrient cycles.
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