TOPIC: WATER

OBJECTIVES:

1. Describe the structure of water

2. Explain the properties of water and how they support life
3. Explain the processes of: Diffusion, Osmosis and Active transport

STRUCTURE OF WATER

The structure of water consists of an oxygen atom bound to two hydrogen atoms by two single
covalent bonds (fig.1). The oxygen atom is more electronegative than the hydrogen atoms, so it
attracts the electrons more strongly than do the hydrogen atoms. As a result, the shared electrons
in a water molecule are far more likely to be found near the oxygen nucleus than near the
hydrogen nuclei this is because the nucleus of the oxygen atom (with 8 positively charged
protons) attracts electrons much more strongly than do the hydrogen nuclei (with only one
positively charged proton). This stronger attraction for electrons gives the oxygen atom two
partial negative charges (δ–). Because the water molecule as a whole is electrically neutral, each
hydrogen atom carries a partial positive charge (δ+) while the oxygen has two partial negative
charges (δ–).

Each of water’s two covalent bonds has a partial charge at each end, δ– at the oxygen end and δ+
at the hydrogen end. The most stable arrangement of these charges is a tetrahedron, in which the
two negative and two positive charges are approximately equidistant from one another (fig. 2).
The oxygen atom lies at the centre of the tetrahedron, the hydrogen atoms occupy two of the
apexes, and the partial negative charges occupy the other two apexes. This results in a bond
angle of 104.5° between the two covalent oxygen hydrogen bonds.

Fig.1 Fig.2

The water molecule, thus, has distinct “ends,” each with a partial charge, like the two poles of a
magnet. (These partial charges are much less than the unit charges of ions, however). Molecules
that exhibit charge separation are called polar molecules because of their magnet-like poles, and
water is one of the most polar molecules known. Polar molecules interact with one another, as
the δ– of one molecule is attracted to the δ+ of another. Because many of these interactions

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involve hydrogen atoms, they are called hydrogen interactions or bonds. Each hydrogen bond is
individually very weak and transient, lasting only a small fraction of a second. Water forms an
abundance of hydrogen bonds, which are responsible for many of its important physical
properties.

Properties of Water

General properties of water include:

1. It being tasteless and odourless.
2. Water is transparent in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum thus aquatic plants
can live within the water because sunlight can reach them.
Unique properties of water
1. Cohesion and adhesion
Cohesion, otherwise known as water's attraction to other water molecules, is one of the major
properties of water. Water's polarity leads it to be attracted to other water molecules. The
hydrogen interactions or bonds in water hold other water molecules together. Due to water's
cohesiveness:
 Liquid water has surface tension. This allows for insects and some animals, such as water
striders and Jesus lizards, to walk on water.
 Water is a liquid at moderate temperatures, and not a gas.
Adhesion is Water's attraction to molecules of a different substance. Water is adhesive to any
molecule it can form hydrogen bonds with. Due to water's adhesiveness:
 Capillary action occurs. For example, when you have a narrow tube in water, the water
will rise up the tube because of water's adhesiveness to the glass "climbing" up the tube.
This together with cohesion is also the means by which water is transported from the
roots to the leaves through the xylem.
2. Water's High Polarity
Water is a polar molecule that has a high level of polarity and attraction to ions and other polar
molecules. Water can form hydrogen bonds, which make it a powerful solvent. Water molecules
are attracted to other molecules that contain a full charge, like an ion, a partial charge, or polar.
Salt (Na+ Cl-) dissolves in water. Water molecules surround the salt molecules and separate the
Na+ from the Cl- by forming hydration shells around those two individual ions.
 Water’s high polarity enables it to act as a transportation medium through which nutrients
and wastes can be transported in living organisms
 Water’s high polarity also contributes to water being an environment in which metabolic
reactions can take place
3. Water's High-Specific Heat Capacity
Water can moderate temperature because of the two properties: high-specific heat and the high
heat of vaporization.

High-specific heat capacity is the amount of energy that is absorbed by one gram of a substance
to raise the temperature by 1 degree Celsius. One gram of water requires 1cal of energy to
change its temperature by 1°C, whereas only 0.59cal is needed to raise the temperature of 1g of
ethanol by 1°C.

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Water molecules form a lot of hydrogen bonds between one another. In turn, a lot of energy is
needed to break down those bonds. Breaking the bonds allows individual water molecules to
move freely about and have a higher temperature The hydrogen bonds between water molecules
absorb the heat when they break and release heat when they form, which minimizes temperature
changes. Water takes a long time to heat up, and holds its temperature longer when heat is not
applied.
 As a result water helps to maintain a moderate temperature of organisms and
environments.
 This is also why water is valuable to industries and in car radiators as a coolant.
4. Water's High Heat of vaporization
Water's high heat of vaporization is the other property responsible for its ability to moderate
temperature. Water's high heat of evaporation is basically the amount of heat energy needed to
change a gram of liquid into gas. Water also needs a lot of energy in order to break down the
hydrogen bonds. The evaporation of water off a surface causes a cooling effect. Much like
among humans—when we get hot, or energy inside our body is breaking chemical bonds, we
sweat as a cooling effect. In this case, the same process occurs: as the water evaporates off the
surface of the skin, it cools down the surface.
5. The Lower Density of Ice

Most substances decrease in volume or contract (and hence increase in density) as their
temperature decreases, water however increases in volume or expands when it freezes.At cooler
temperatures, the hydrogen bonds of water molecules form a lattice structure that does not
generally occur naturally in any other substance other than ice. When water reaches its freezing
point its atoms rearrange themselves in a very specific three-dimensional pattern. The oxygen
atom is surrounded by four hydrogen atoms. Two of these form O-H bonds normally seen in
water molecules. The other two form a hydrogen bond. Ice—the solid form of water—is less
dense than water because of the hydrogen bonds being spaced out and being relatively apart.

Fig.3 Structure of water molecules in liquid (L) and solid or ice (R) state

 The low density is what allows ice to float and not sink in ponds and lakes when
temperatures become very low.
 The layer of ice is a habitat for animals such as penguins and polar bears

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  The layer of ice also acts as an insulator which prevents water in the pond or lake from
freezing thus supporting aquatic life in the water body.
6. Water’s resistance to compression under pressure

Hydrostatic skeletons rely on fluid (mostly water) that is always under pressure. This is because
there is a constant volume of fluid in an enclosed body space called the coelom or coelomic
cavity. The fluid in the coelomic cavity resists compression, providing structure to the animal.