1 Alternator (Synchronous Generator): Theory and Equations
1 Introduction
An alternator, or synchronous generator, is an electromechanical device that
converts mechanical energy into alternating current (AC) electrical energy. The working
principle is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states that an
electromotive force (EMF) is induced whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux. Unlike a DC
generator, the EMF generated is inherently alternating and does not require a commutator.
2 Construction
• Stator (Armature): Stationary part of the machine containing 3-phase windings
distributed in slots. This is where the EMF is induced.
• Rotor (Field System): Rotating magnetic field system, excited by DC supply
through slip rings.
- Salient pole rotor: Used for low-speed machines (hydroelectric alternators).
- Cylindrical rotor: Used for high-speed machines (turbo-alternators).
3 Working Principle
When the rotor is excited with direct current, it produces a magnetic field. As the
rotor turns at synchronous speed, the rotating magnetic field cuts across the stator conductors.
According to Faraday’s law, a sinusoidal EMF is induced in each phase winding.
4 Frequency of Generated EMF
If P is the number of poles and N is the rotor speed in rpm, the frequency of the
generated EMF is
P⋅ N
f= (1)
120
5 EMF Equation of Alternator
Let
• Φ = flux per pole (Wb),
• T = number of turns per phase,
• f = frequency (Hz),
• k w =k p ⋅k d = winding factor,
• k p = pitch factor,
• k d = distribution factor.
The RMS value of induced EMF per phase is
E ph=4.44 f Φ T k w (2)
6 Line Voltage of Three-Phase Alternator
• For Star (Y) connection:
Eline = √ 3 E ph (3)
• For Delta ( Δ ) connection:
Eline =E ph (4)
7 Synchronous Speed
The synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field is
120 f
Ns= (5)
P
8 Power Equation
The total 3-phase power delivered by the alternator is
P= √ 3 V line I line cos ϕ (6)
where cos ϕ is the load power factor.
9 Equivalent Circuit (Per Phase)
The internal generated EMF of each phase can be expressed as
E ph=V ph+ I a (Ra + j X s ) (7)
where
• V ph = terminal voltage per phase,
• I a = armature current per phase,
• Ra = armature resistance,
• X s = synchronous reactance = X a+ X arm.
10 Voltage Regulation
The percentage voltage regulation of an alternator is
E 0−V
% VR= ×100 (8)
V
where E0 is the no-load EMF and V is the full-load terminal voltage.
11 Characteristics of Alternator
• Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC): E oc vs field current at no load.
• Short Circuit Characteristic (SCC): Armature current vs field current with
short-circuited terminals.
• Load Characteristic: Terminal voltage vs load current at constant excitation.
12 Summary of Core Equations
1. Frequency:
P⋅ N
f= (9)
120
2. EMF per phase:
E ph=4.44 f Φ T k w (10)
3. Line Voltage:
Eline = √ 3 E ph (Star), E line= E ph (Δ) (11)
4. Synchronous Speed:
120 f
Ns= (12)
P
5. Power Output:
P= √ 3 V line I line cos ϕ (13)
6. Equivalent Circuit:
E ph=V ph+ I a (Ra + j X s ) (14)
7. Voltage Regulation:
E 0−V
% VR= ×100 (15)
V
