ALTERNATING CURRENT
THE ALTERNATING CURRENT
Alternating current is that current which changes its magnitude and direction
continuously with time and its direction is reversed periodically.
It is represented by
AVERAGE VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
The mean or average value of alternating current over any half cycle is defined
as that value of steady current which would send the same amount of charge
through a circuit in the time of half cycle (i.e. T / 2 ) as is sent by the
alternating current through the same circuit, in the same time.
let an alternating current be represented by
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By : SACHIN GOEL
If the strength of current is assumed to remain constant for a small time, dt ,
then small amount of charge sent in a small time dt is
dq = Idt
Let q be the total charge sent by alternating current in the first half cycle
(i.e. 0 T / 2 ).
If Im represents the mean or average value of alternating current over the 1st
half cycle, then
By 1 and 2,
Similarly mean value of alternating potential
Effective Value or RMS (Root Mean Square) Value or Virtual Value or
Apparent value of AC (Irms or IV or I eff) :
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It is defined as the value of AC over a complete cycle which would generate
same amount of heat in a given resistors that is generated by steady current in
the same resistor in the same time during a complete cycle.
let an alternating current be represented by
Heat generated by AC
∫ ∫
On solving
For DC
On comparison
Similarly, RMS value of Alternating Voltage
Q: Which is more dangerous 220V of AC or 220V of DC?
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE ONLY
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be connected to a pure
resistance R.
Suppose the alternating e.m.f. supplied is represented by
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Let I be the current in the circuit at any instant t . The potential difference
developed across R will be IR. This must be equal to e.m.f. applied at that
instant,
Comparing with Ohm's law equation, that is current = voltage/resistance,
we find that resistance to a.c. is represented by R-which is the value of
resistance to d .c. Hence behaviour of R in d.c. and a.c. circuit is the same, R can
reduce a.c. as well as d.c. equally effectively. Comparing (2) and (1), we find that
E and I are in phase. Therefore, in an a.c. circuit containing R only, the voltage
and current are in the same phase, as shown in figure.
Phasor Diagram:
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING INDUCTANCE ONLY
Let a source of alternating e.m.f. be
connected to a pure inductance L.
Suppose the alternating e.m.f. supplied is
represented by
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By : SACHIN GOEL
Let I be the current in the circuit at any instant t . This must be equal to e.m.f.
applied at that instant,
∫ ∫
Therefore alternating current lags behind alternating voltage by a phase angle
of 900, i.e., by one fourth of a period. Conversely, voltage across L leads the
current by a phase angle of 900.
The term is having the dimension of resistance; know as inductive reactance
(XL)
Unit Ohms (Ω)
For DC, ω=0 therefore there will be no inductive effect in case of direct
current.
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Phasor Diagram:
Inductive Reactance (XL)
Definition: Inductive reactance is the opposition
offered by the inductor in an AC circuit to the flow
of AC current.
It is represented by (XL) and measured in ohms (Ω). Inductive reactance is
mostly low for lower frequencies and high for higher frequencies. It is,
however, negligible for steady DC current.
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING CAPACITANCE ONLY
Let a source of alternating e.m.f.
be connected to a capacitor only of
capacitance, figure. Suppose the
alternating e.m.f. supplied is C
The current flowing in the circuit transfers charge to the plates of the
capacitor. This produces a potential difference between the plates. The
capacitor is alternately charged and discharged as the current reverses each
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half cycle. At any instant , suppose is the charge on the capacitor. Therefore,
potential difference across the plates of capacitor,
If I is instantaneous value of current in the circuit at instant , then t
( )
⁄
Therefore alternating current leads alternating voltage by a phase angle of
900, i.e., by one fourth of a period. Conversely, voltage across C lags behind the
current by a phase angle of 900.
The term ⁄ is having the dimension of resistance; know as inductive
reactance (Xc)
Unit Ohms (Ω)
For DC, ω=0, therefore capacitor behave as open circuit in case of
direct current.
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( )
Capacitive Reactance (XL)
Definition: Capacitive reactance is the opposition
offered by the capacitor in an AC circuit to the flow
of AC current.
It is represented by (XC) and measured in ohms (Ω). Capacitive reactance is
mostly high for lower frequencies and low for higher frequencies. It is, however
acts as open circuit for steady DC current.
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND
CAPACITANCE IN SERIES:
Let a pure resistance R , a pure inductance L
and an ideal capacitor of capacitance C be
connected in series to a source of
alternating e.m.f. As R,L and C are in series,
therefore, current at any instant through
the three elements has the same amplitude
and phase. Let it be represented by
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By : SACHIN GOEL
.
However, voltage across each element bears a different phase relationship with
the current.
When we draw a phasor diagram for the above series combination as shown
below.
Where,
Where Z is known as Impedance of the series LCR circuit.
Phase angle,
A triangle drawn by using above parameter is known as impedance triangle.
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Cases:
(i) If ( circuit behaves as inductive in nature and voltage leads
the current.
(ii) If ( circuit behaves as capacitive in nature and voltage lags
behind the current.
(iii) If ( circuit is known as series resonant circuit.
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE AND CAPACITANCE IN
SERIES:
In this case voltage lags behind the current.
A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN
SERIES:
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√
In this case voltage leads the current
Series Resonance Circuit:
A circuit in which inductance L , capacitance C and resistance R are connected
in series, and the circuit admits maximum current corresponding to a given
frequency of a.c., is called series resonance circuit.
The impedance (Z) of an RLC circuit is given by
√( )
At very low frequencies, inductive reactance is negligible, but capacitive
reactance ( ) is very high.
As frequency of alternating e.m.f. applied to the circuit is increased, XL goes on
increasing and XC goes on decreasing. For a particular value of ω , say (ω=ω0)
That is
Or
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√
At this particular frequency , as ,
i.e. impedance of RLC circuit is minimum and hence the current ,
becomes maximum. This frequency is called series resonance frequency.
Similarly graph between impedance and frequency can be drawn as
Average Power in RLC circuit
Let the alternating e.m.f. applied to an RLC circuit be,
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If alternating current developed lags behind the applied e.m.f. by a phase angle
φ , then
Power at instant t,
Integration both side,
∫ ∫
∫ ∫
√ √
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By : SACHIN GOEL
Where is known as power factor.
For purely resistive circuit φ=0, therefore P =Ev Iv.
For purely inductive and capacitive circuit φ=90o, therefore P =0.
Power Factor of an A.C. Circuit
We have proved that average power/cycle in an inductive circuit is
Here, P is called true power, is called apparent power or virtual power and
is called power factor of the circuit.
Thus
Also from impedance triangle,
Idle current or Watt less current
Average power consumed in a pure inductor or ideal a capacitor
Zero. Therefore, current through pure capacitor or pure
inductor , which consumes no power for its maintenance in the circuit is called
Idle current or Watt less current.
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TRANSFORNER
Transformer, device that transfers electric energy from one alternating-
current circuit to one or more other circuits, either increasing (stepping up) or
reducing (stepping down) the voltage.
Principle
A transformer is based on the principle of mutual induction, i.e., whenever the
amount of magnetic flux linked with a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the
neighbouring coil.
Construction
A transformer consists of a rectangular soft iron core made of laminated
sheets, well insulated from one another. Two coils P1P2 (the primary coil) and
S1S2 (the secondary coil) are wound on
the same core, but are well insulated
from each other. Note that both the
coils are also insulated from the core.
The source of alternating e.m.f. (to be
transformed) is connected to the
primary coil and a load resistance R is connected to the secondary coil S1S2
through an open switch . Thus, there can be no current through the secondary
coil so long as the switch is open.
For an ideal transformer, we assume that the resistances of the primary and
secondary windings are negligible.
Theory and working
Let the alternating e.m.f. supplied by the a.c. source connected to primary be
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The alternating primary current induces an alternating magnetic flux in the iron
core. Because the core extends through the secondary winding, the induced flux
also extends through the turns of secondary.
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, rate of change of
magnetic flux per unit turn in primary is equal to rate of change of magnetic
flux per unit turn in secondary.
( ) ( )
Where NP and NS are number of turns in primary and secondary respectively.
Where is known as transformation ratio.
i. If that is , this is the case of step up operation and
the transformer is known as Step up Transformer.
ii. If that is , this is the case of step down operation and
the transformer is known as Step down Transformer.
For an ideal Transformer, there will be no loss of energy, that is
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Efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output to the input power
Energy Losses in a Transformer
Following are the major sources of energy loss in a transformer:
1. Copper loss is the energy loss in the form of heat in the copper coils of a
transformer. This is due to Joule heating of conducting wires. These are
minimized using thick wires.
2. Iron loss is energy loss in the form of heat in the iron core of the
transformer. This is due to formation of eddy currents in iron core. It is
minimised by taking laminated cores.
3. Leakage of magnetic flux occurs in spite of best insulations. Therefore,
rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of S1S2 is less than
the rate of change of magnetic flux linked with each turn of P1P2. It can
be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils one over the
other.
4. Hysteresis loss. This is the loss of energy due to repeated magnetisation
and demagnetisation of the iron core when a.c. is fed to it. The loss is
kept to a minimum by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis
loss.
5. Humming noise of a transformer. Due to improper insulation between the
sheets of soft iron core of transformer.
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