Social Psychology
S.Y. 2025 - 2026 | 1ST SEMESTER
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
William McDougall (1871–1938)
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
★ Known as one of the founders of social psychology.
★ The study of how we feel about, thinks about, ★ Wrote An Introduction to Social Psychology (1908),
and behaves toward the people around us and one of the first textbooks in the field.
how our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are ★ Believed instincts are the driving forces behind
influenced by those people. human behavior (e.g., aggression, curiosity,
○ Is a discipline that tries to understand reproduction).
human social behavior. ★ Emphasized that social behavior is rooted in biology
and inherited tendencies.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SOCIAL Instinct Theory
1.0
PSYCHOLOGY ★ People join the challenge because of the instinct to
belong and express themselves. Humans naturally want
to be part of a group and show their skills to others.
The Birth and Infancy of Social Psychology: 1880s to
1920s
Normal Triplett Edward Ross (1866–1951)
★ American Psychologist
★ An American sociologist who helped establish social
★ Credited with having published the first ever psychology as a separate discipline. Wrote Social
research in Social Psychology during (1897- Psychology (1908), focusing on how society shapes
1898) individual behavior.
Stressed the role of social control, customs, and
“The Dymogenic Factors in Pacemaking and institutions in influencing how people think and act.
Competition” More sociological than psychological in approach — he
Triplett found that cyclists were significantly faster looked at group-level influences.
when racing with pacemakers or against another cyclist
that was racing alone, against the clock. Societal Influence
Bodily presence of another contestant participating People join because society and culture encourage it.
simultaneously in the race serves to liberate latent Friends share it, influencers promote it, and social
energy that is not ordinarily available. media trends make it “cool,” so individuals follow along
to fit in.
Max Ringelmann Floyd Allport (1890–1979)
★ French agricultural engineer who conducted ★ Often called the father of experimental social
research in the 1880s but wasn’t published until 1913. psychology.
★ In contrast to Triplett however, Ringelmann noted ★ Wrote Social Psychology (1924), emphasizing
that the individuals often performed worse on simple scientific methods and experiments to study behavior.
tasks such as pulling rope when they performed the ★ Shifted the focus from groups as a whole to the
task with other people-which called RINGELMANN individual in the social context.
EFFECT. ★ Studied social facilitation, conformity, and attitudes
— paving the way for modern research.
Despite their place in the history of social psychology,
these late 19th century studies did not truly establish Experimental Approach
social psychology as a distinct field. ★ To study it scientifically, you could set up an
experiment: give two groups the same dance tutorial —
Credits for the creation of these writers of the first one group learns it alone, the other learns it in front of
three books in social psychology. These authors friends — then compare who is more likely to post the
announced the arrival of a new approach to the social video online.
aspects of human behavior. Social Psychology was
born.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
2.0 THE SELF IN A SOCIAL WORLD
A Call to Action: 1930s-1950s
“There are three things extremely hard: steel, a
What one person would you guess has had the diamond, and to know one’s self.” -Benjamin
strongest influence on the field of social Franklin, Poor Richard’s Almanack, 1750
psychology?
William McDougall (1871–193 THE SELF CONCEPT
ADOLFUS HITLER (1889- 1945) ★ The overall understanding of a person about
themselves, including their beliefs, feelings, and
★ He was a German dictator who led the country from perceptions of who they are. It compasses
1933 to 1945. He is best known for his central role in various aspects of identity, such as personality
starting World War II and orchestrating the Holocaust, traits, values, abilities and roles in life.
which resulted in the genocide of six million Jews and
millions of others. As the leader of the Nazi Party, Self-Schemas are the cognitive molecules about beliefs
Hitler's extreme nationalist and racist ideologies led to in oneself that guide processing of self-relevant
widespread devastation and loss of life. His information.
dictatorship marked one of the darkest periods in Example:
modern history. - Masculine or Feminine
- Independent or Dependent
- Liberal or Conservative
- Introverted or Extroverted
GORDON ALLPORT (1954)
Three Parts of Self-Concept
★ Social psychology is best defined as the discipline
that uses scientific methods in “an attempt to
understand and explain how the thought, feeling and Carl Rogers described the self-concept as being
behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, composed of three parts:
imagined, or implied presence of other human beings"
★ Is the person you want to be.
This person has the attributes or
Muzafer Sherif qualities you are either working
Ideal Self toward or want to possess. It's
who you envision yourself to be
★ a social psychologist who published groundbreaking if you were exactly the person
experimental research on influence (Group Influence). you wanted to be.
★ As a youth in Turkey, he witnessed a group of Greek
soldiers brutally killing his friends. ★ Refers to how you see
★ After migrating to the US, he drew on this experience yourself at this moment in time.
and began to conduct research. Self-Image Physical characteristics,
★ It is possible to study complex social processes such personality traits, and social
as conformity and social influence. roles affect your self-image.
Kurt Lewin ★ How much you like, accept,
and value yourself contributes
to your self-concept.
★ Another great contributor to social psychology who Self-esteem can be affected by
Self-Esteem
fled Nazi onslaught in Germany and immigrated to the a number of factors, including
US in the 1930s. how others see you, how you
★ He initially developed many of the important ideas think you compare to others,
of the discipline, including a focus on the dynamic and your role in society.
interactions among people
★ also, known as “The Father of Social Psychology”.
Social psychology is all about life – your life: your SELF PERCEPTION
beliefs, your attitudes, your relationships. ★ Is the process by which you interpret and evaluate
your own behaviors, thoughts, and feelings. It’s about
how you perceive and make sense of yourself in
specific situations or contexts.
illiam McDougall (1871–1938)
WWilliam McDougall71–1938)ou18711938William Mc
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
★ It involves your observations of your own actions
and the attributions you make about why you act the
way you do. It’s more focused on the interpretation of
specific behaviors rather than a comprehensive view of
yourself.
3.0 SOCIAL BELIEFS AND JUDGEMENT
SELF PERCEPTION OF MOTIVATION
★ Refers to how you perceive and interpret your own
How exactly does our brain make these judgments?
drive and reasons for pursuing certain goals or
engaging in specific behaviors. It's about how you
We have two brain systems, notes Nobel Prize winner
understand and evaluate your own motivations—why
Daniel Kahneman in Thinking, Fast and Slow (2011)
you do what you do.
SYSTEM 1 - FAST THINKING
Intrinsic Motivation ● Automatic, quick, effortless
● Works unconsciously (intuition, “gut feeling”)
★ Refers to engaging in activities for their own sake because ● Relies on habits, experiences, and mental
they are inherently enjoyable, satisfying, or fulfilling. shortcuts (heuristics)
Characteristics: ● Good for everyday decisions, recognizing
Enjoyment - The activity itself is enjoyable or faces, sensing danger
interesting. Downside: Prone to biases and errors
Personal Satisfaction -There’s a sense of personal
satisfaction or achievement from completing the INTUITIVE JUDGEMENTS - decisions or conclusions
task.
we make quickly, automatically, and without conscious
Self-Driven -Motivation is based on internal desires reasoning.
and personal values.
Advocates of “intuitive management” believe we should
tune into our hunches.
Extrinsic Motivation
THE POWER OF INTUITION
“The heart has its reasons which reasons does not
★ Involves performing an activity to achieve external
know.” observed seventeenth-century philosopher-
rewards or avoid negative outcomes.
Characteristics: mathematician Blaise Pascal.
External Rewards - Motivation is driven by external
factors such as money, praise, or avoiding Automatic thinking - “Implicit” thinking that is
punishment. effortless, habitual, and without awareness. Roughly
Goal-Oriented - The focus is often on achieving corresponds to “intuition”.
specific outcomes or rewards rather than on the
activity itself. Examples of automatic thinking.
Recognition - Success and effort are often linked to ● Schemas - are mental concepts or templates
external validation or acknowledgment. that intuitively guide our perceptions and
interpretation.
● Emotional Reactions - are often nearly
instantaneous, happening before there is time
SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY for deliberating thinking.
★ Developed by psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954. ● Given sufficient expertise, people may
It explains how individuals evaluate their own abilities, intuitively know the answer to a problem.
opinions, and worth by comparing themselves to ● Given but very small exposure to someone -
others. According to the theory, people have an innate even just a quick glance at their photo -
drive to assess their standing and make sense of their people’s snap judgement do better than
social world by comparing themselves with others. chance
Upward Social Comparison- we raise the standards by SYSTEM 2 – SLOW THINKING
which we evaluate our attainments and compare ● Deliberate, logical, effortful
ourselves with others doing better. ● Requires focus and conscious reasoning
● Handles complex problems, decision-making,
Downward Social Comparison- we compare ourselves and planning
with those who are worse than us, mostly to enhance ● Good for critical thinking and evaluating
our self–esteem but may also lead to complacency. evidence
Downside: Slower, mentally draining, we tend to
“Your self-worth is determined by you. You don’t avoid using it unless necessary
have to depend on someone telling you who you are.
” – Beyonce Controlled thinking - “Explicit” thinking that is
deliberate, reflective and conscious.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Overconfidence is the tendency for people to be more
confident than are correct—that is, to overestimate the
accuracy of their beliefs and judgments. It’s
encapsulated in the phrase: “to be more confident than
correct“
OTHER THINKING PATTERNS
Confirmation Bias - people also tend to seek
information that might disapprove of what they believe.
We are eager to verify our belief but less inclined to
seek evidence that might disprove them.
Counterfactual Thinking - it is mentally stimulating TYPES OF ATTRIBUTION ERRORS
what might have been. This also underlies our feelings
of luck. Misattribution - mistakenly attributing a behavior to
the wrong source.
TWO TYPES OF COUNTERFACTUAL THINKING
Spontaneous Trait Inference - an effortless, automatic
Upward Counterfactuals (If Only…) – imagining a inference.
better outcome.
Downward Counterfactuals (At least…) – imagining Fundamental Attribution Error - the tendency for
worse outcomes. observers to underestimate situational influences and
overestimate dispositional influences upon other’s
Illusionary Thinking - another influence on everyday behavior.
thinking is our search for order in random events, a
tendency that can lead us down all sorts of wrong
paths.
Social Judgement - involves efficient information
processing. It also involves our feelings. Our moods
infuse our judgement. Unhappy people – especially the
bereaved or depressed – tend to be more self-focused
and brooding. (Myers, 1993 2000)
HOW MOOD INFLUENCES JUDGEMENT:
1. Positive Mood = Positive Judgement - When we’re
happy, we tend to see people and situations more
favorably.
HOW DO OUR SOCIAL BELIEFS MATTER?
2. Negative Mood = Negative Judgement - When
we’re sad, stressed, or grieving, we become more According to Robert Merton (1948), a self-fulfilling
self-focused and critical. prophecy occurs when our beliefs or expectations
influence our actions in such a way that they bring
3. Neutral Mood = Balanced Judgement - When about the very outcome we anticipated—essentially
emotions are calm, we can process information more making the belief come true.
objectively.
He first introduced it in his article “The Self-Fulfilling
HOW DO WE EXPLAIN OUR SOCIAL WORLDS? Prophecy” published in the journal The Antioch Review.
Merton described it as a false definition of a situation
Attribution Theory - analyzes how we explain people’s that evokes new behavior, which makes the originally
behavior or what infer from it. (Gilbert & Malone 1995; false conception come true.
Heider, 1958)
Behavioral Confirmation is a type of self-fulfilling
Sometimes we attribute people’s behavior to internal prophecy whereby people’s social expectations lead
causes and external causes. them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm
their expectations. This also occurs as people interact
Dispositional Attribution - attributing behavior to the with partners holding mistaken beliefs.
person’s disposition and traits.
“The more powerful you are... the more responsible
Situational Attribution - attributing behavior to the you act to humbly. If you don’t, your power will ruin
environment. you, you will ruin the other. “
-Pope Francis, TED Talk, 2017
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
