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Newton’s Laws of Motion – Short Notes

1. First Law of Motion (Law of Inertia)

 Statement: A body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in

a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
 Key Idea: Inertia (resistance to change of state).
 Examples:
o Passenger jerks forward when bus stops suddenly.
o Dust comes out of carpet when beaten.
 Types of Inertia:
o Inertia of Rest
o Inertia of Motion
o Inertia of Direction

2. Second Law of Motion

 Statement: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly

proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction of
force.
 Formula:

Key Idea: Explains how force changes motion.

 Examples:
o Kicking a football (lighter ball accelerates more).
o Catching a fast-moving cricket ball with hands moving
backward (to reduce force by increasing time).

3. Third Law of Motion

 Statement: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

 Key Idea: Forces always occur in pairs.
 Examples:
o Gun recoils backward when fired.
o Rocket propulsion (action: gases pushed downward, reaction:
rocket moves upward).
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o Walking (we push the ground backward, ground pushes us

forward).

Important Points for Exams

 Unit of force → Newton (N)

 1 Newton = Force required to produce acceleration of 1 m/s² in a body
of mass 1 kg.
 Momentum (ppp) = m⋅v.
 Impulse = Change in momentum = Force × Time.

Force, Work, Power, Energy

Force

 Definition: Force is an external agency which changes (or tends to

change) the state of rest or uniform motion of a body.
 It is a vector quantity.
 Unit: Newton (N).
 1 Newton = Force required to accelerate 1 kg mass with 1 m/s².
 Types of Forces:
o Contact Forces → Friction, Normal force, Tension.
o Non-contact Forces → Gravitational, Magnetic, Electrostatic.

Work

 Work is said to be done when:

1. A force is applied.
2. The body gets displaced.
3. Displacement has a component in the direction of force.
 Formula:

W=F⋅d⋅cos⁡

 Unit: Joule (J).

 1 J = Work done when a force of 1 N displaces a body by 1 m in
direction of force.
 Work done can be positive (force & displacement same direction) or
negative (opposite direction).
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Power

 Power is rate of doing work.

 Formula:

 Unit: Watt (W).

 1 Watt = Work done of 1 J in 1 second.

Energy

1. Kinetic Energy (KE): Energy possessed due to motion.

2.Potential Energy (PE): Energy possessed due to

position/configuration.

3.Mechanical Energy = KE + PE.

4.Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can neither be created nor

destroyed, only transformed.

2. Motion in Straight Line

 Distance: Total path length (scalar).

 Displacement: Shortest straight-line distance between initial & final
position (vector).

Speed & Velocity

 Speed = Distance/Time (scalar).

 Velocity = Displacement/Time (vector).

Acceleration

 Rate of change of velocity.

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Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion

 u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, aaa =

acceleration, s = displacement, t = time.

3. Circular Motion & Centripetal Force

 Uniform Circular Motion: When a body moves in a circle with

constant speed but velocity keeps changing (because direction
changes).
 Centripetal Force: Required to keep body in circular motion, directed
towards center.

Examples: Planet revolving around sun, stone tied to string in

rotation.

 Centrifugal Force: Apparent force acting outward on a body moving

in circle (pseudo force in rotating frame).

4. Friction

 Definition: Force that resists relative motion between two surfaces in

contact.
 Always acts opposite to motion (or tendency of motion).

Types

1. Static Friction: Opposes initiation of motion.

2. Kinetic/Dynamic Friction: Opposes motion once started.
3. Rolling Friction: Least, occurs when a body rolls (like wheels).

Factors affecting Friction

 Nature of surfaces, weight of object, presence of lubrication.

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Applications

 Advantages: Walking, writing, braking, matchstick lighting.

 Disadvantages: Wear & tear, energy loss in machines.
 Reduction: Lubricants, ball bearings, streamlined design.

5. Momentum & Impulse

Momentum

 Momentum of a body = mass × velocity.

p=mv

 Vector quantity. Unit: kg·m/s.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

 Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision (if

no external force).
 Example: Recoil of gun.

Impulse

 Impulse = Force × Time = Change in Momentum.

I=F⋅t=Δp

 Unit: Ns.
 Applications: Airbags, cricket players moving hands backward while
catching.

6. Simple Machines

 Devices which make work easier (by multiplying force or changing its
direction).

Important Machines

1. Lever
o Fulcrum, Load, Effort.
o Classes:
 Class I: Fulcrum between load & effort (Scissors).
 Class II: Load between fulcrum & effort (Nutcracker).
 Class III: Effort between load & fulcrum (Tongs).
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2. Pulley
o Fixed pulley → Changes direction of force.
o Movable pulley → Reduces effort.
o Block & Tackle → Provides high mechanical advantage.
3. Inclined Plane
o A slope that reduces effort needed to lift load.

Concepts

 Mechanical Advantage (MA) = Load / Effort.

 Velocity Ratio (VR) = Distance moved by effort / Distance moved
by load.
 Efficiency = (MA / VR) × 100%.

7. Projectile Motion (Basic)

 When a body is thrown with some initial velocity making an angle with
horizontal → path is parabolic.

Formulas

 Time of Flight (T):


 Maximum Height (H):

Horizontal Range (R):


 Condition for maximum range: Angle of projection = 45°.

Examples

 Cannon ball firing, throwing a ball, water from hose at angle.

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📘 Gravitation – Detailed Notes

1. Newton’s Law of Gravitation

 Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force
which is:
1. Directly proportional to the product of their masses.
2. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.


 Force of gravity is always attractive.

1. Acceleration due to Gravity (g)

 All objects near Earth’s surface experience acceleration towards

Earth’s center, called g.
 Formula: g = G × M / R²
o M = mass of Earth = 5.97 × 10²⁴ kg
o R = radius of Earth = 6.37 × 10⁶ m
 Average value: g ≈ 9.8 m/s²

Factors affecting g:

1. Altitude (h above surface):

g' = g × (1 − 2h / R) (approx. for small h) → g decreases with height
2. Depth (d below surface):
g' = g × (1 − d / R) → g decreases with depth; g = 0 at Earth’s center
3. Latitude (Earth’s rotation):
o g maximum at poles, minimum at equator

2. Mass vs Weight

Mass (m):

 Quantity of matter in a body, scalar, constant everywhere

 SI unit: kg
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Weight (W):

 Force with which Earth attracts a body: W = m × g

 Vector quantity, changes with location (value of g)
 SI unit: Newton (N)

3. Escape Velocity (ve)

 Minimum velocity to escape Earth’s gravity without further

propulsion:
ve = √(2 × G × M / R) = √(2 × g × R)
 For Earth: ve ≈ 11.2 km/s
 Depends on Earth’s mass and radius only, not on body’s mass

4. Orbital Velocity (vo)

 Velocity required for a satellite to revolve in a circular orbit close to

Earth:
vo = √(G × M / R) = √(g × R)
 For Earth: vo ≈ 7.9 km/s

5. Satellites

Types

1. Geostationary Satellites
o Orbit: Equatorial plane, circular orbit.
o Period = 24 hours (same as Earth’s rotation).
o Appears stationary relative to Earth.
o Height ≈ 36,000 km.
o Uses → Communication (TV, phones, weather forecasting).
2. Polar Satellites
o Orbit passes over poles.
o Low altitude (≈ 500–800 km).
o Shorter time period (90–120 min).
o Covers entire Earth as it rotates beneath.
o Uses → Mapping, spying, Earth resource monitoring, remote
sensing.
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Key Exam Points

 Value of GGG is universal, but g varies with altitude, depth, latitude.

 Weightlessness in satellites → Because both satellite and object inside
fall freely under gravity (free fall condition).
 Escape velocity on Moon ≈ 2.38 km/s → reason why Moon has no
atmosphere.

📘 Properties of Matter – Detailed Notes

1. Density & Relative Density

Density (ρ)

 Mass per unit volume of a substance.

 Formula: ρ = m / V
 SI unit: kg/m³ (also g/cm³).
 Density of water = 1000 kg/m³ (1 g/cm³).

Relative Density (RD) or Specific Gravity

 Ratio of density of a substance to density of water (at 4°C).

 Formula: RD = ρ(substance) / ρ(water)

 No unit (dimensionless).
 Example: RD of mercury ≈ 13.6 → Mercury is 13.6 times denser than
water.

2. Pressure

Pressure

 Force per unit area applied normally.

 Formula: P = F / A
 SI unit: Pascal (Pa).
 1 Pa = pressure when 1 N force acts on area of 1 m².
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Pascal’s Law

 Pressure applied on a confined fluid is transmitted equally and

undiminished in all directions.
 Applications: Hydraulic lift, hydraulic brakes.

Atmospheric Pressure

 Pressure exerted by the weight of air column above Earth’s surface.

 At sea level = 1.013 × 10⁵ Pa = 1 atm = 76 cm of Hg.
 Demonstrations:
o Drinking straw works because of atmospheric pressure.
o Suction pump, Magdeburg hemispheres.

3. Archimedes’ Principle & Buoyancy

Archimedes’ Principle

 When a body is immersed fully/partly in a fluid, it experiences an

upward force (buoyant force) equal to the weight of displaced fluid.

 Formula: Fb = ρ(fluid) × g × V(displaced)

 Applications:
o Ships float (designed to displace more water).
o Hydrometer measures density.
o Submarines rise/sink by adjusting buoyancy.

Buoyant Force

 Upthrust exerted by liquid/gas on body.

 If Buoyant force > Weight → Body floats, else sinks.

4. Surface Tension & Capillarity

Surface Tension (T)

 Property of a liquid surface to behave like a stretched elastic sheet.

 Caused by cohesive forces between molecules.
 Defined as force per unit length acting along surface.

 T=F/L
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 SI unit: N/m.

Examples:

 Small insects (water striders) walk on water.

 Spherical shape of soap bubbles, liquid drops.
 Detergents reduce surface tension → help cleaning.

Capillarity (Capillary Action)

 Rise or fall of liquid in a narrow tube due to surface tension.

 Water rises in thin glass tube (adhesion > cohesion).
 Mercury falls in glass tube (cohesion > adhesion).
 Applications:
o Rise of water in soil & roots of plants.
o Ink rises in blotting paper.

5. Elasticity (Stress, Strain, Hooke’s Law)

Elasticity

 Property of a body to regain original shape/size after deforming force

is removed.
 Perfectly elastic body: steel (approx).

Stress

 Restoring force per unit area set up inside body due to deformation.

 Stress = F / A
 Unit: N/m² (same as pressure).

Strain

 Ratio of change in dimension to original dimension.

 Strain = ΔL / L
 Dimensionless (no unit).
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Hooke’s Law

 Within elastic limit, stress ∝ strain.

Stress / Strain = Constant (E)


 E = Young’s Modulus.
 Applications: Springs, bridges, wires, design of machines.

📘 Heat & Thermodynamics – Detailed Notes

1. Temperature & Heat Difference

Heat

 Form of energy transferred due to temperature difference.

 SI Unit: Joule (J) (earlier calorie).
 1 calorie = Heat required to raise temperature of 1 g water by 1°C.
→ 1 cal=4.186 J1 \, cal = 4.186 \, J1cal=4.186J.

Temperature

 Degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

 Indicates direction of heat flow (heat flows from high temp to low
temp).
 Measured in °C, K, °F.

Key Point:

 Heat = energy in transfer;

 Temperature = measure of average kinetic energy of particles.

2. Specific Heat & Latent Heat

1. Specific Heat Capacity (c)

 Definition: Heat required to raise temperature of 1 kg of substance by

1°C (or 1 K).
 Formula: Q = m × c × ΔT
o Q = heat absorbed/released (J)
o m = mass (kg)
o c = specific heat capacity (J/kg·K)
o ΔT = temperature change (K or °C)
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 Example: Water has high specific heat → absorbs/release heat slowly

(hot water bottles, cools land slowly).

2. Latent Heat (L)

 Definition: Heat required to change the state of a unit mass of

substance without temperature change.
 Types:
o Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf): Solid ↔ Liquid (e.g., Ice → Water)
o Latent Heat of Vaporization (Lv): Liquid ↔ Gas (e.g., Water →
Steam)
 Formula: Q = m × L
o m = mass
o L = latent heat (J/kg)
 Example: Ice at 0°C absorbs heat to become water at 0°C without rise
in temperature.

3. Modes of Heat Transfer

1. Conduction

 Transfer of heat through solids without movement of particles.

 Example: Heating one end of iron rod makes other end hot.
 Good conductors: Metals (Copper, Aluminum)
 Bad conductors (insulators): Wood, Glass, Rubber

2. Convection

 Transfer of heat in fluids (liquids & gases) due to actual motion of

particles.
 Example:
o Water boiling in a vessel
o Sea breeze: Day → cool air from sea to land; Night → reverse
 Important for atmospheric circulation.

3. Radiation

 Transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic waves (no medium

required).
 Example: Sun’s heat reaching Earth, heat near fire
 Best absorber & emitter: Black surface
 Best reflector: Shiny/white surface
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4. Thermometer Scales & Conversion

Scales:

 Celsius (°C): 0 → freezing, 100 → boiling

 Fahrenheit (°F): 32 → freezing, 212 → boiling
 Kelvin (K): Absolute scale, 0K = -273°C

Conversion Formulas:

1. K = °C + 273
2. °C / 100 = (°F - 32) / 180 = (K - 273) / 100

Quick Exam Tricks:

 0°C = 32°F = 273K

 100°C = 212°F = 373K

5. Laws of Thermodynamics (Basic Idea)

Zeroth Law

 If body A is in thermal equilibrium with B, and B with C → then A and

C are also in equilibrium
 Basis of temperature measurement

First Law (Law of Energy Conservation)

 Heat supplied to a system is used for:

1. Increasing internal energy (ΔU)
2. Doing external work (W)
 Formula: Q = ΔU + W

Second Law

 Heat cannot spontaneously flow from colder to hotter body.

 Efficiency of heat engine < 100%.

Third Law

 At absolute zero (0 K), entropy of a pure crystal = 0.

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✅ Summary Points (Exam Fit):

 Heat = energy in transit; Temperature = measure of hotness.

 High specific heat → slow heating/cooling (water).
 Latent heat → no temperature change during phase change.
 Modes: Conduction (solids), Convection (fluids), Radiation (vacuum
possible).
 Absolute zero = -273°C = 0K.
 1st Law = Energy conservation; 2nd Law = heat flows hot → cold.

📘 Waves & Sound – Detailed Notes

1. Nature of Waves

Types of Waves

1. Transverse Waves
o Particles vibrate perpendicular to direction of wave
propagation.
o Example: Light waves, water surface waves.
o Has crests (upward) and troughs (downward).
2. Longitudinal Waves
o Particles vibrate parallel to direction of wave propagation.
o Example: Sound waves in air.
o Has compressions (high pressure) and rarefactions (low
pressure).

Basic Terms

 Wavelength (λ): Distance between two consecutive crests or

compressions.
 Frequency (f): No. of vibrations per second. Unit: Hertz (Hz).
 Time Period (T): Time taken for one complete vibration.

Time period:
T=1/f

 T = Time period (s)

 f = Frequency (Hz)

Wave speed:
v=f×λ
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 v = Speed of wave (m/s)

 f = Frequency (Hz)
 λ = Wavelength (m)

2. Speed of Sound in Different Media

 Depends on medium’s density & elasticity.

 Order: Solids > Liquids > Gases.

Medium Approx. Speed

Air (20°C) 343 m/s

Water 1500 m/s

Steel 5000 m/s

Key Points for Exams:

 Sound cannot travel in vacuum.

 Speed increases with temperature & humidity in air.

3. Echo, SONAR, Doppler Effect

Echo

 Reflection of sound heard again after it strikes a surface.

 Time gap ≥ 0.1 sec required (human ear resolution).
 Minimum distance for echo in air ≈ 17.2 m (at 20°C).

SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging)

 Uses:
Measuring depth of sea
o
Underwater communication
o
Submarine detection
o
 Principle: Reflection of ultrasonic waves
 Depth formula:
Depth = (v × t) / 2
 v = speed of sound in water (m/s)
 t = time interval between sending & receiving the wave (s)
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Doppler Effect

 Apparent change in frequency of sound when source or observer is

in motion.
 Approaching → frequency increases (sound shriller).
 Receding → frequency decreases (sound duller).
 Applications: Radar, speed guns, astronomy (redshift/blueshift).

4. Resonance & Beats

Resonance

 When frequency of external force = natural frequency of body →

amplitude becomes very large.
 Examples:
o Breaking of glass by loud sound.
o Radio tuning.
o Swing pushed at correct interval.

Beats

 Regular variation in intensity of sound due to superposition of two

waves of slightly different frequencies.
 No. of beats per second = |f₁ – f₂|.
 Example: Musical instruments tuning.

5. Sound Characteristics

1. Frequency
o Number of vibrations/sec.
o Determines pitch (high or low tone).
2. Pitch
o Perception of frequency by ear.
o High frequency → shrill sound (e.g., whistle).
o Low frequency → deep sound (e.g., drum).
3. Loudness
o Depends on amplitude of vibration.
o Measured in decibel (dB).
o Threshold of hearing = 0 dB; Painful sound > 120 dB.
4. Intensity
o Power transmitted per unit area by sound wave.
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Unit: W/m².
o
5. Quality (Timbre)
o Distinguishes two sounds of same loudness & pitch (e.g., guitar
vs violin).

✅ Exam Key Points:

 Sound: Longitudinal mechanical wave, needs medium.

 Speed in air ≈ 343 m/s at 20°C.
 Echo condition: distance ≥ 17.2 m.
 SONAR uses ultrasonic waves.
 Beats per second = difference of frequencies.
 Loudness ∝ Amplitude².

📘 Light & Optics – Detailed Explanation

1. Reflection of Light

 Definition: Light bouncing back into the same medium from a

smooth surface (mirror).

Laws of Reflection

1. Incident ray, reflected ray & normal at point of incidence lie in the
same plane.
2. Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r).

👉 This is why mirrors give us images.

Types of Mirrors

1. Plane Mirror
o Image: Virtual, erect, same size, laterally inverted.
o Uses: Looking glass, periscope.
2. Spherical Mirrors
o Concave mirror:
 Forms real, inverted image (except when object is very
close → virtual, magnified).
 Uses: Solar cooker, shaving mirror, torch reflector.
o Convex mirror:
 Image always virtual, erect, diminished.
 Uses: Vehicle side mirror (gives wider field view).

📌 Mirror Formula:
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Lens/Mirror Formula:
1/f=1/v+1/u

 f = Focal length
 v = Image distance
 u = Object distance

Magnification (M):
M = hi / ho = v / u

 hi = Height of image
 ho = Height of object

2. Refraction of Light

 Definition: Bending of light at the interface when it passes from one

medium to another (due to change in speed).

👉 Light bends towards normal when going from rarer → denser medium,
👉 bends away from normal when going denser → rarer medium.

Snell’s Law:
sin i / sin r = n21

 i = Angle of incidence
 r = Angle of refraction
 n21 = Refractive index of medium 2 relative to medium 1

Absolute Refractive Index:

n=c/v

 c = Speed of light in vacuum (m/s)

 v = Speed of light in the medium (m/s)

📌 Important Values:

 Refractive index of air ≈ 1.

 Water ≈ 1.33.
 Glass ≈ 1.5.
 Diamond ≈ 2.42 (reason for sparkle).

3. Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

 Condition: Light travels from denser → rarer medium.

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 If angle of incidence > critical angle (C), then light is reflected back
inside instead of refracting.

Examples & Uses:

 Diamond sparkle (high refractive index → very small critical angle).

 Mirage: Hot air near ground is rarer → light bends upwards,
appearing like water.
 Optical fibers: Work on TIR → used in internet cables, endoscopy.

4. Lenses & Image Formation

Convex Lens (Converging)

 Image varies with object distance:

Object Position Image Nature

Beyond 2F Real, inverted, diminished (camera).

At 2F Real, inverted, same size.

Between F & 2F Real, inverted, magnified (projector).

At focus (F) Image at infinity.

Between F & lens Virtual, erect, magnified (magnifying glass).

Concave Lens (Diverging)

 Always forms virtual, erect, diminished images.

 Uses: Spectacles for myopia.

Lens Formula:
1/f=1/v−1/u

 f = Focal length
 v = Image distance
 u = Object distance

Magnification (M):
M=v/u

 M = Magnification
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 v = Image distance
 u = Object distance

5. Human Eye & Defects

 Structure: Cornea → aqueous humor → lens → retina.

 Retina: Light-sensitive screen with rods & cones.

Defects & Corrections

1. Myopia (nearsightedness)
o Far objects blurred.
o Focal length too short.
o Correction: Concave lens.
2. Hypermetropia (farsightedness)
o Near objects blurred.
o Focal length too long.
o Correction: Convex lens.
3. Presbyopia
o Old age → lens loses elasticity.
o Correction: Bifocal lenses.
4. Astigmatism
o Uneven cornea → distorted image.
o Correction: Cylindrical lens.

6. Prism, Dispersion & Rainbow

 Prism: Triangular transparent block.

 Dispersion: Splitting of white light into 7 colors (VIBGYOR).
 Cause: Different refractive indices for different wavelengths.
 Red bends least, Violet bends most.

Rainbow Formation

 Sunlight enters raindrop → refraction → internal reflection →

refraction again.
 Colors spread out in sky (primary rainbow: red outside, violet inside).

7. Optical Instruments

1. Microscope
o Combination of objective lens (small f, high magnification) +
eyepiece lens.
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Gives enlarged image of tiny objects.

o
2. Telescope
o Uses convex lenses or concave mirrors.
o Types:
 Refracting telescope: Uses convex lens.
 Reflecting telescope: Uses concave mirror.
3. Camera
o Uses convex lens to form real, inverted image on film/CCD
sensor.
o Aperture (controls light), Shutter (controls exposure).

✅ Exam-Fit Quick Points

 Plane mirror → lateral inversion.

 Convex mirror → always virtual, diminished (rear-view).
 Concave mirror → can form real & virtual images (used in solar
cooker).
 TIR → mirage, diamond sparkle, optical fibers.
 Myopia → concave lens; Hypermetropia → convex lens.
 Dispersion → Violet bends most, Red least.
 Microscope = convex + convex; Camera = convex lens.

📘 Electricity & Magnetism — Detailed Notes

1) Electric charge, current, potential, resistance

Charge (q):

 Property causing electrical interaction.

 Unit: coulomb (C), smallest free charge: e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
 Like charges repel, unlike attract

Current (I):

 Rate of flow of charge: I = dq / dt

 Unit: ampere (A)
 Conventional current: + to −; electrons move − to +

Potential (V):

 Work done per unit charge: V = W / q

 Unit: volt (V), 1 V = 1 J/C

Resistance (R):

 Opposition to current: R = V / I
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 Uniform wire: R = ρ × L / A
o ρ = resistivity (Ω·m), depends on material & temperature
o Metals: R ↑ with T ↑, Semiconductors: R ↓ with T ↑
 Conductance: G = 1 / R (unit: siemens, S)

2) Ohm’s Law, Series & Parallel circuits

Ohm’s Law: V = I × R (for ohmic conductor at constant T)

Series:

 R_eq = R1 + R2 + ...
 Current same; voltages add
 Voltage division: V_k = (R_k / ΣR) × V_total

Parallel:

 1 / R_eq = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...
 Voltage same; currents add
 Current division: I_k = (G_k / ΣG) × I_total, G = 1/R
 Shortcut for 2 resistors: R_eq = R1 × R2 / (R1 + R2)

3) Heating effect of current (Joule’s Law)

 Heat produced: H = I² × R × t = V × I × t = V² × t / R
 Applications: Heater, iron, geyser, fuse
 Transmission: Use high voltage, low current to reduce I²R losses

4) Electric Power & Energy

 Power: P = V × I = I² × R = V² / R (Unit: W)
 Energy: E = P × t (Unit: J), 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J
 Appliance rating: I = P / V

5) Magnetism & Magnetic Field

Force on conductor: F = B × I × L × sinθ

Force on moving charge: F = q × v × B
Magnetic flux: Φ = B × A, B = Φ / A

 Field lines: N → S outside, S → N inside; density ∝ strength

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 Solenoid: acts as bar magnet, strength ↑ with turns, current, soft-iron

core

6) Earth’s Magnetism (basics)

 Magnetic axis tilted from rotational axis

 Angle of declination (D): between geographic & magnetic meridians
 Angle of dip (I): Earth’s field with horizontal (0° at equator, 90° at
poles)
 Compass aligns along magnetic meridian

7) Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Law: e = − N × dΦ/dt

Lenz’s Law: Induced current opposes change

 Right-hand rule: Thumb = motion, First finger = field, Second finger =

current
 Eddy currents: Circular currents in bulk conductors; heating & drag;
reduced by laminating

8) Transformers & Motor/Generator

Transformer: AC only, mutual induction

 Vs / Vp = Ns / Np, Vp × Ip ≈ Vs × Is
 Step-up: Ns > Np → V ↑, I ↓
 Step-down: Ns < Np → V ↓, I ↑
 Uses: Power transmission, adapters

Electric Motor: Converts electrical → mechanical energy

 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: First = Field, Second = Current, Thumb =

Motion

Electric Generator: Converts mechanical → electrical energy

 AC generator: slip rings → alternating emf

 DC generator: split-ring → unidirectional emf
 AC frequency: f = (Np × rpm) / 60
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High-Yield Tips / Quick Facts

 Power: P = V × I = I² × R = V² / R
 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10⁶ J
 Parallel wiring gives same voltage, lower Req
 Fuse: thin, high-resistance alloy, rating just above normal current
 Heating loss ∝ I²R → transmit power at high V, low I
 Magnet field lines never intersect
 Ohm’s law fails for diodes/filaments

Mini Worked Examples

1. Heater 1100 W for 2 h → Energy = 1.1 × 2 = 2.2 kWh

2. Two 6 Ω resistors in parallel → Req = 3 Ω; V = 12 V → I = 12 / 3 = 4 A
3. Transformer: Vp = 200 V, Np = 400, Ns = 40 → Vs = 200 × 40 / 400 =
20 V

📘 Modern Physics – Detailed Notes

1. Photoelectric Effect

 Phenomenon: Electrons emitted from metal surface when light of

suitable frequency falls.
 Discovered by: Heinrich Hertz; Explained by Einstein (Nobel 1921).

Key Results:

1. Electrons emitted only if light frequency > threshold frequency (f₀)

2. Intensity ↑ → more electrons, but same energy
3. Electron kinetic energy depends on frequency, not intensity
4. Emission is instantaneous

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation:

hf = ϕ + K_max

 h = Planck’s constant
 f = frequency of light
 ϕ = work function (minimum energy to remove electron)
 K_max = ½ m v² = maximum kinetic energy of electron

Applications: Photocells, solar panels, TV cameras

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2. X-Rays & Laser

X-Rays:

 Discovered by Roentgen (1895)

 Produced when high-speed electrons strike heavy metal target
 Properties: Short wavelength, penetrates flesh, blocked by bones
 Uses: Medical imaging, radiotherapy, crack detection, airport security

Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation):

 Properties: Monochromatic, coherent, directional, intense

 Applications: Eye surgery, cutting/welding, CD/DVD readers, optical
fiber communication, military

3. Radioactivity (α, β, γ rays)

 Discovered by Henri Becquerel (1896); studied by Marie & Pierre Curie

Types of Radiation:

 Alpha (α): Helium nucleus (⁴₂He), heavy, +2 charge, low penetration

(stopped by paper), high ionization
 Beta (β): Fast electron (β⁻) or positron (β⁺), medium penetration (thin
Al), medium ionization
 Gamma (γ): Electromagnetic wave, no mass/charge, high penetration
(thick lead needed), low ionization

Radioactive Decay Law:

N = N₀ e^(−λt)
Half-life: t₁/₂ = 0.693 / λ

Applications: Medical tracers, C-14 dating, cancer treatment, nuclear

power

4. Nuclear Fission & Fusion

Fission:

 Heavy nucleus (U-235, Pu-239) splits into smaller nuclei with energy
 Example: ²³⁵U + n → ¹⁴⁴Ba + ⁸⁹Kr + 3n + Energy
 Basis of nuclear reactors & atomic bombs
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Fusion:

 Two light nuclei combine to form heavier nucleus with energy

 Example: ¹H² + ¹H³ → ²He⁴ + n + Energy
 Source of Sun’s energy; hydrogen bomb
 Needs very high temperature (~10⁷ K)

Exam Difference:

 Fission: Heavy nuclei, ordinary temp, controllable

 Fusion: Light nuclei, very high temp, not fully controllable

5. Atomic Models

Rutherford Model:

 Atom mostly empty; nucleus small, dense, +ve

 Electrons revolve around nucleus
 ✅ Couldn’t explain stability & discrete spectra

Bohr Model (1913):

 Electrons revolve in discrete orbits without radiating energy

 Energy absorbed/emitted only when electron jumps orbit
 ΔE = hf = E₂ − E₁
 Angular momentum quantized: mvr = n h / 2π, n = 1,2,3…
 Explains hydrogen spectrum (Lyman, Balmer, Paschen series)

Exam Key Points:

 Photoelectric effect → energy depends on frequency (Einstein)

 X-rays → Roentgen; medical imaging
 Laser → coherent & monochromatic → surgery & fiber optics
 α: least penetrating, heavy; β: medium; γ: highly penetrating
 Fission → nuclear reactors; Fusion → Sun & H-bomb
 Bohr’s model explains hydrogen spectrum

🌈 Light Spectrum – Detailed Notes

1. Electromagnetic Spectrum (EM Spectrum)

 Definition: Range of all electromagnetic waves arranged according to

wavelength (λ) or frequency (f).
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 All EM waves:
 Travel at speed of light in vacuum: c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s
o Are transverse waves.
o Differ only in wavelength & frequency.

2. Order of EM Spectrum (from longest λ → shortest λ)

Wavelength
Region Frequency Main Uses
Range

Radio waves > 0.1 m Lowest Radio, TV, mobile comm.

Radar, microwave oven, satellite

Microwaves 1 mm – 30 cm
comm.

Remote controls, thermal

Infrared (IR) 700 nm – 1 mm
imaging, night vision, heaters

Visible Light 400–700 nm Human vision

Ultraviolet 10 nm – 400 Sterilization, fluorescence,

Higher
(UV) nm tanning

Medical imaging, security

X-rays 0.01–10 nm
scanning

Gamma rays Cancer treatment, nuclear

< 0.01 nm Highest
(γ) reactions, astrophysics

3. Visible Spectrum (ROYGBIV)

 Human eye detects 400–700 nm range.

 Order of colors (increasing wavelength):
Violet (400 nm) → Indigo → Blue → Green → Yellow → Orange →
Red (700 nm).
 Violet has highest frequency & energy, Red has lowest.

4. Important Concepts

 Dispersion of light: Splitting of white light into its 7 constituent

colors (spectrum) when passed through a prism.
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 Cause: Different colors have different refractive indices; violet deviates

most, red least.
 Rainbow: Natural dispersion by raindrops (reflection + refraction +
dispersion).

5. Exam Pointers

 Order of spectrum (memory trick): "Rabbits Mate In Very Unusual

eXpensive Gardens" (Radio → Micro → IR → Visible → UV → X-ray →
Gamma).
 Red is used in traffic lights & danger signals → least scattered, long
wavelength.
 Ozone layer absorbs UV rays.
 X-rays discovered by Roentgen.
 Gamma rays from radioactive nuclei; very high penetration.

📘 Electronics & Communication – Detailed Notes

1. Semiconductor

 Definition: A material whose conductivity lies between a conductor

(like copper) and an insulator (like rubber).
 Examples: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge).

Types:

1. Intrinsic Semiconductor: Pure form (only Si or Ge). Conductivity is

very low.
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor: Doped with impurities to increase
conductivity. Two types:
o n-type: Doped with 5-valent atoms (P, As). Extra electrons =
majority carriers.
o p-type: Doped with 3-valent atoms (B, Al). Holes (positive
vacancies) = majority carriers.

2. Diode (p-n junction)

 Definition: A device formed by joining p-type & n-type

semiconductors.
 Symbol: ►|–
 Working: Allows current to flow only in one direction (forward bias).
 Uses:
o Rectifier (AC → DC).
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o Switching circuits.
o LED (Light Emitting Diode).
o Photodiode (light sensor).

3. Transistor

 Made of two p-n junctions (pnp or npn).

 Terminals: Emitter (E), Base (B), Collector (C).

Functions:

 Amplifier: Increases weak signals.

 Switch: Turns circuits ON/OFF.
 Basic of IC (Integrated Circuit).

Applications: Radios, TVs, computers, mobile phones, almost every

electronic gadget.

4. Digital & Analog Signals

Feature Analog Signal Digital Signal

Nature Continuous, smooth variation Discrete (0s & 1s)

Example Sound waves, old radios Computers, mobiles

Noise More affected by noise Less affected (more reliable)

Storage Difficult Easy (binary storage)

Key Point: All modern communication (mobiles, internet) uses digital

signals.

5. Mobile Communication

 Based on cellular network (area divided into cells, each with a tower).
 Works on radio waves + digital signals.
 Generations:
o 1G: Analog voice only.
o 2G: Digital voice, SMS.
o 3G: Internet + video calls.
o 4G: High-speed data, HD video streaming.
o 5G: Ultra-fast, IoT (Internet of Things), smart devices.
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6. Satellite Communication

 Uses artificial satellites as relay stations for radio/microwave

signals.

Process:

1. Ground station transmits signal → uplink to satellite.

2. Satellite transponder amplifies & shifts frequency.
3. Satellite sends back signal → downlink to ground.

Types of Satellites in Communication:

 Geostationary Satellites (GEO): Fixed over one place, period = 24 hr,

used for TV, weather, telecommunication.
 Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Low altitude (500–2000 km), used in GPS,
mobile satellites.

Applications:

 Mobile phones, GPS navigation.

 Satellite TV & internet.
 Weather forecasting.
 Military & disaster management.

Key Exam Pointers (One-liners)

 Semiconductor examples: Si, Ge.

 Diode → rectifier (AC to DC).
 Transistor → amplifier & switch.
 Analog = continuous; Digital = discrete (0 & 1).
 Modern communication is digital-based.
 Satellite communication uses uplink & downlink.
 5G = fastest mobile network, supports IoT & AI