CELLS
• Cells are the building blocks/basic
units of all living things
History of the Cell
• Discovered by
Robert Hooke
in the late
1600s, when
he was
looking
through a
crude
microscope at
some plant
tissue (cork)
• He saw some cubelike structures that
reminded him of the long rows of
monk’s rooms (cells) at the monastery,
and thus named these structures as
cells.
Anatomy of the Cell
• Cells are not all the same
• All cells share general structures
• Cells are organized into three main
regions
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane
Nucleus (nucle = kernel)
• Located near the center of the cell
• Headquarter/control center of the cell
• Contains genetic material (DNA)
• Shape conforms to the shape of the cell
• A round or oval body that is surrounded
by the nuclear envelope
Three regions:
Nuclear membrane/envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Deoxyribonucleic
Acid (DNA)
• The blueprint that
contains all the
instructions needed
for building the
whole body
• Has the instructions
for building proteins
• Absolutely
necessary for cell
reproduction
Nucleoli (little nuclei)
• Refers to one or more small, dark-
staining, essentially round bodies
Nuclear Envelope/Nuclear Membrane
• Double membrane barrier of the
nucleus
• Consists of a double phospholipid
membrane
• Contain nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of
the cell
Chromatin
• A loose network
of bumpy thread
s composed of
DNA and
protein
• Location: scatte
red throughout t
he nucleus
• Chromatin condenses to form dense,
rodlike bodies called chromosomes
when the cell divides
Plasma Membrane
• Fragile,
transparent
barrier for cell
contents
• Forms the outer
cell boundary
• Composed of a
lipid bilayer
containing
proteins
Hydrophilic (Water-
loving) Heads
• Polar heads of ph
ospholipid molecu
les
• Attracted to water
• Lie on both the in
ner & outer surfac
es of the membra
ne
Hydrophobic (Water-
hating) Tails
• Nonpolar tails of pho
spholipid molecules
• Avoid water
• Line up in the center
of the plasma membr
ane
• Also contains protei
n, cholesterol, and gl
ycoproteins
• Role of proteins
–Responsible for specialized
membrane functions:
•Enzymes
•Receptors for hormones or other
chemical messengers
•Transport as channels or carriers
• Role of sugars
–Glycoproteins are branched sugars
attached to proteins that abut the
extracellular space
–Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-
rich area on the cell’s surface
Plasma Membrane
Specializations
Microvilli
•Finger-like proj
ections that incr
ease surface are
a for absorption
• The larger its surface area, the more
material can move through the
membrane per minute
• Microvilli tend to accelerate absorption
• The plasma membrane of cells
specializing in absorption have
numerous microvilli
Ex: intestine
Membrane Junctions
Tight Junctions
• Are the closely associated areas of two
cells whose membranes join together
forming a virtually impermeable barrier
to fluid
• They hold cells together
Desmosomes (Macula adherens)
• A cell structure specialized for cell-to-
cell adhesion
• Help to resist shearing forces and are
found in simple and stratified
squamous epithelium.
Gap Junctions
• They directly connect the cytoplasm of
two cells, which allows various
molecules, ions and electrical impulses
to directly pass through a regulated
gate between cells.
Cytoplasm
• Cellular
material
outside the
nucleus and
inside the
plasma
membrane
3 major elements:
1. Cytosol
• Fluid that suspends other elements
• The fluid in which the organelles of the
cytoplasm are suspended;
• Also called the ground substance of th
e cell.
2. Organelles
• Metabolic machinery of the cell
3. Inclusions
• Non-functioning units
• Chemical substances that may or may not
be present; most are stored nutrients or c
ell products; includes:
a. Lipid droplets common in fat cells
b. Glycogen granules abundant in liver cells
c. Pigments such as melanin seen in skin &
hair cells
d. Mucus & other secretory products
e. Various types of crystals
Cytoplasmic Organelles
• Literally means “little organs.”
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Mitochondria (mitos =
thread)
• Singular: mitochondrion
• Tiny threadlike or sausage-shaped
organelles
• Usually they are rod-shaped, however
they can be round.
• In living things, they squirm, lengthen,
and change shape almost continuously
• Consists of a double membrane (railroad
track), equal to 2 plasma membranes pla
ced side by side, separated by a space (i
ntermembrane space)
a. Outer membrane – smooth & featurele
ss
b. Inner membrane – has shelflike protru
sions called cristae (crests)
• Contain enzymes that oxidize
foodstuffs to produce cellular energy-
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
• Referred to as "powerhouse of the cell"
Ribosomes
• Tiny, bilobed,
dark-stained
bodies made
of protein and
one variety of
RNA
(ribosomal
RNA)
• Found in two
locations:
Floating freely
in cytoplasm
(cytosol)
Attached to
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
• They are the
protein
builders/
synthesizers of
the cell
• They are like
construction
guys who
connect one
amino acid at a
time and build
long chains
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Membranous system of tubules that
extends throughout the cytoplasm
• The ER is
continuous with
the nuclear
envelope,
forming a
system of
channels for the
transport of
cellular
substance
(protein) from
one part of the
cell to another
Exist in 2 forms:
Rough ER
• Studded with ribosomes
• Tubules of rough ER provide an area
for storage and transport of the
proteins made on the ribosomes to
other cell areas
• External faces synthesizes
phospholipids and cholesterol
Smooth ER
• It has no function in protein synthesis
• It is a site for steroid and lipid
synthesis, lipid metabolism, and drug
detoxification
Ribosome
mRNA
Rough ER 1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.
1
Ribosome
mRNA
Rough ER 1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.
2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
1
2 attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
Protein
Ribosome
mRNA
Rough ER 1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.
2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
1
2 attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
3
3 The protein is packaged in a tiny
Protein
membranous sac called a transport vesicle.
Transport
vesicle buds off
Ribosome
mRNA
Rough ER 1 As the protein is synthesized on the ribosome,
it migrates into the rough ER tunnel system.
2 In the tunnel, the protein folds into its
functional shape. Short sugar chains may be
1
2 attached to the protein (forming a glycoprotein).
3
3 The protein is packaged in a tiny
Protein
membranous sac called a transport vesicle.
Transport 4 The transport vesicle buds from the rough ER
vesicle buds off and travels to the Golgi apparatus for further
4 processing.
Protein inside
transport vesicle
• ER is the packaging and transport
system of the cell
Golgi Apparatus
• Stacks of
flattened
sacs with
bulbous
ends and
associated
small vsicles
• Found close
to nucleus
• Within its
cisterns, the
protein
delivered
from the
rough ER are
modified,
segregated,
and
packaged
into
membranous
vesicles
Vesicles produced
will ultimately:
• Are incorporated
into the plasma
membrane
• Become secretory
vesicles that
release their
contents from the
cells
• Become
lyzosomes
Lyzosomes
• Various-sized
membranous
sacs
containing
powerful
digestive
enzymes
• A product of the packaging activities of
the Golgi apparatus
• It contain acid hydrolases to digest
worn-out cell organelles and foreign
substances that enter the cell
• Have the capacity of total cell
destruction if ruptured
• Often referred to as the "suicide sacs"
Peroxisomes
• Small lysozomes-
like membranous
sacs containing
oxidase (oxygen)
enzymes that
detoxify alcohol,
hydrogen
peroxide, and
other harmful
chemicals
Centrioles
• Paired
cylindrical
bodies lie at
right angles
to each
other close
to the
nucleus
• As part of the centrosome, they direct
the formation of the miotic spindle
during cell division
• Form the base of cilia and flagella
Cytoskeleton
• Provide cellular support by forming an
internal scaffoldings
• Function also in intracellular transport
• It has 3 different types:
Microfilament
Intermediate filament
Microtubules
Microfilaments:
• Ribbon or cordlike elements
• Formed largely of actin (a contractile
protein), thus are important in cell
mobility, particularlyin muscle cells
Intermediate
Filament:
• Proteinaceous
cytoskeletal
elements that
act as internal
guy wires to
resist
mechanical
(pulling) forces
acting on cells
Microtubules
• Slender tubules
formed of proteins
called tubulins
• They organize the
cytoskeleton and
formed the spindle
during cell division
• Formed the internal
structure of the
centrioles and help
determine cell shape
Figure 3.7 Cytoskeletal elements support the cell and help to generate movement.
(a) Microfilaments (b) Intermediate filaments (c) Microtubules
Tubulin subunits
Fibrous subunits
Actin subunit
7 nm 10 nm 25 nm
Microfilaments form the blue Intermediate filaments form Microtubules appear as gold
batlike network. the purple network surrounding networks surrounding the cells’
the pink nucleus. pink nuclei.
Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (1 of 5)
Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (2 of 5)
Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (3 of 5)
Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (4 of 5)
Table 3.1 Parts of the Cell: Structure and Function (5 of 5)
Cellular Projections
• Not found in
all cells
• Use for
movements
Cilia
• moves
materials
accross cell
surface
Flagellum
• propels the cell
Figure 3.8g Cell diversity.
Nucleus Flagellum
Sperm
(g) Cell of reproduction
Events of Cell Division
Mitosis
• The division of the copied DNA of the
mother cell to 2 daughter cells
• Results in the formation of two daughte
r nuclei with exactly the same genes as
the mother nucleus
Stages:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Interphase
• Not part of mitosis (no cell division
occurs)- inactive phase
• Cell carries out normal metabolic
activities and growth
• DNA is in the form of chromatin
• Nuclear envelope and nuclei are intact
and visible
3 Distinct Periods
G1: The centrioles
begin replicating
S: DNA is
replicated
G2: Final
preparations for
mitosis are
completed and
centrioles finish
replicating
Prophase
• First part of cell division
• Chromatin condenses, forming bar-like
chromosomes
(chromo= colored; soma= body)
• Each
duplicated
chromosome
s consists of
2 identical
threads
(sister
chromatids)
held together
at the
centromere
• As the chromosomes appear, the
nucleoli disappear
• The 2 centromeres separate from one
another and begin to move towards
opposite sides of the cell, directing the
assembly of mitotic spindle (made of
microtubules) between them as they
move
Late Telophase
• The nuclear envelope breaks up,
allowing the spindle to interact with the
chromosomes
• Chromosomes have attached randomly
to the spindle fibers by their centromer
es (centromeres migrate to the poles)
• Kinethocore microtubules pull on each
chromosomes from both poles in a tug-
of-war drawing the chromosomes to
the center (equator) of the cell)
Metaphase
• Chromosomes cluster and become alig
ned at the metaphase plate (the center
of the spindle midway between the cent
rioles) so that a straight line of chromo
somes is seen
• Spindle from centromeres are attached
to chromosomes that are aligned in the
center of the cell
Anaphase
• The shortest phase of mitosis
• It begins abruptly as the centromeres
splits simultaneously
• Chromatids, now called chromosomes,
begin to move slowly apart, drawn towa
rd the opposite ends of the cell
• Chromosomes are pulled by their half-c
entromeres, with theirs arms dangling
behind them
• Ends when chromosome movement en
ds
Telophase
• Like prophase in reverse
• Identical chromosomes at opposite end
s of the cell uncoil to become threadlik
e chromatin
• The spindle breaks down and disappea
rs
• A nuclear envelope forms around each
chromatin mass
• Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter
nuclei
• A cleavage furrow (for cell division) beg
ins to form
Cytokinesis
• Division of the cytoplasm
• Begins when mitosis is near completio
n
• during late anaphase and completes du
ring telophase
• Cleavage furrow squeezes or pinches t
he original cytoplasmic mass into 2 par
ts
• Formation of 2 daughter cells, each of
which is smaller and has less cytoplas
m than the mother cell, but is geneticall
y identical to it
• The daughter cells grow and carry nor
mal cell activities until it is their turn to
divide (later become the mother cells)
A&P Flix™: Mitosis
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
