Electrial Engg 4th Semester

EM-I
Fleming’s left hand rule
Fleming’s left hand rule
Used to determine the direction of
force acting on a current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field .
The middle finger , the fore finger and
thumb of the left hand are kept at right
angles to one another .
The middle finger represent the
direction
of current
The fore finger represent the
direction of magnetic field
The thumb will indicate the
direction of force acting on the
conductor .
This rule is used in
Fleming’s Right hand rule
 Fleming’s Right hand rule
Used to determine the direction of emf
induced in a conductor
The middle finger , the fore finger and
thumb of the left hand are kept at right
angles to one another.
The fore finger represent the
direction of magnetic field
The thumb represent the
direction of motion of the
conductor
The middle finger will
indicate the direction of the
inducted emf .
Len’s Law
The direction of induced emf is
given by Lenz’s law .
According to this law, the induced
emf will be acting in such a way so
as to oppose the very cause of
production of it .

e = -N (dØ/dt) volts
 DC Generator
Mechanical energy is converted to
electric energy

Threerequirements are essential

1.Conductors
2.Magnetic field
3.Mechanical energy
Working principle
A generator works on the
principles of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction

Whenever a conductor is
moved in the magnetic field , an
emf is induced and the magnitude
of the induced emf is directly
proportional to the rate of change
of flux linkage.

This emf causes a current

flow if the conductor circuit is
closed .
Sectional view of a DC machine
Construction of DC Generator
Field
system
Armature
core
Armatu
re
winding
Commutat
Field winding
Rotor and rotor winding
Working principle of DC motor
Working principle of DC motor
Force in DC motor
 Armature winding
There are 2 types of winding
Lap and Wave winding
Lap winding Wave winding
A=P A=2

The It is used in
armature low current
windings output and
are divided high voltage.
into no. of 2
sections brushes
equal to the
no of
Field system
It is for uniform magnetic field
within which the armature
rotates.
Electromagnets are preferred
in comparison with permanent
magnets
They are cheap , smaller in
size , produce greater
magnetic effect and
Field strength can be varied
Field system consists of the
following parts
Yoke
Pole
cores
Pole
shoes
Field
coils
Armature core
The armature core is
cylindrical
High permeability silicon
steel stampings
Impregnated
Lamination is to reduce the
eddy current loss
Commutator
Connect with external circuit
Converts ac into unidirectional
current Cylindrical in shape
Made of wedge shaped copper
segments Segments are insulated
from each other Each commutator
segment is connected to
armature conductors by means of a cu
strip called riser.
No of segments equal to no of coils
Carbon brush
Carbon brushes are used in DC
machines because they are soft
materials
It does not generate spikes when they
contact commutator
To deliver the current thro
armature Carbon is used for
brushes because it has
negative temperature coefficient
of resistance
Self lubricating , takes its shape ,
improving area of contact
Brush rock and holder
Carbon brush
Brush leads (pig tails)
Brush rocker ( brush
gear ) Front end
cover
Rear end
cover
Cooling fan
Bearing
Terminal
 EMF equation
Let,
Ø= flux per pole in weber
Z = Total number of
conductor P = Number of
poles
A = Number of parallel
paths N =armature
speed in rpm
Eg = emf generated in any on
 EMF equation
Flux cut by 1 conductor
in 1 revolution =P*φ
Flux cut by 1 conductor in
60 sec = P φ N /60
Avg emf generated in 1
conductor = PφN/60
Number of conductors in
each parallel path = Z /A

Eg = PφNZ/60A
D C generators are generally classified
according to their method of
excitation .

Separately excited D C generator

Self excited D C generator

Series wound generator
Shunt wound generator
Compound wound generator
Short shunt & Long
shunt Cumulatively
compound &
Differentially compound
No load saturation characteristic
(Eo/If)

Internal or Total characteristic (E/ Ia)

External characteristic (V/I)

 Critical field resistance
For appreciable generation of emf, the
field resistance must be always less
certain resistance, that resistance is
called as the critical resistance of the
machine .
Magnetic neutral axis :
It is perpendicular to the lines of force
between the two opposite adjacent poles.
Leading pole Tip (LPT) :
It is the end of the pole which first
comes in contact with the armature.
Trailing pole tip :
It is the end of the pole which comes in
contact later with the armature.
Interaction of Main field flux with Armature
field flux
It decreases the efficiency of the machine
It produces sparking at the brushes
It produces a demagnetising effect on the
main poles
It reduces the emf induced
Self excited generators some times fail to
build up emf
1.Brushes must be shifted to the new position of
the MNA
2.Extra turns in the field winding
3.Slots are made on the tips to increase the
reluctance
4. The laminated cores of the shoe are
staggered
5.In big machines the compensating winding at
pole shoes produces a flux which just opposes
the armature mmf flux automatically.
The change in direction of current
takes place when the conductors are
along the brush axis .
During this reverse process brushes
short circuit that coil and undergone
commutation
Due to this sparking is produced and
the brushes will be damaged and
also causes voltage dropping.
 Losses in DC Generators
1. Copper losses or variable losses
2. Stray losses or constant losses
Stray losses : consist of (a) iron losses or core
losses and (b) windage and friction losses .
Iron losses : occurs in the core of the machine
due to change of magnetic flux in the core .
Consist of hysteresis loss and eddy current
loss.
Hysteresis loss depends upon the frequency ,
Flux density , volume and type of the core .
Hysteresis loss depends upon the frequency ,
Flux density , volume and type of the core .

Eddy current losses : directly proportional to

the flux density , frequency , thickness of the
lamination .
Windage and friction losses are constant due to
the opposition of wind and friction .
Applications
Shunt Generators:
a. in electro plating
b. for battery recharging
c. as exciters for A C generators.
Series Generators :
A. As boosters
B. As lighting arc lamps
Converts Electrical energy into
Mechanical energy
Construction : Same for Generator and
motor
Working principle : Whenever a
current carrying conductor is placed
in the magnetic field , a force is set
up on the conductor.
The induced emf in the rotating armature
conductors always acts in the opposite
direction of the supply voltage .
According to the Lenz’s law, the direction of the
induced emf is always so as to oppose the
cause producing it .
In a DC motor , the supply voltage is the cause
and hence this induced emf opposes the
supply voltage.
DC motors are mainly
classified into three types as
listed below:
⚫Shunt motor
⚫Series motor
⚫Compound motor
Differential
compound
Cumulative
The turning or twisting force
about an axis is called
torque .
P= T * 2 πN/ 60
Eb Ia = Ta * 2 πN/
60 T ∞φIa
Ta ∞ I2a
Characteristic of DC motors

⚫T/ Ia
characteristic

⚫N/ I characteris
a tic

⚫N/T
characteristic
Speed control of DC motors
According to the speed equation of a
dc motor N ∞ Eb/φ
∞ V- Ia Ra/ φ
Thus speed can be controlled by-
Flux control method: By Changing the flux
by controlling the current through the
field winding.
Armature control method: By Changing the
armature resistance which in turn changes
the voltage applied across the armature
Flux control
Advantages of flux control:
It provides relatively smooth and easy
control Speed control above rated
speed is possible
As the field winding resistance is high the
field current is small. Power loss in the
external resistance is small . Hence this
method is economical
Disadvantages:
Flux can be increased only upto its rated
value
High speed affects the commutation, motor
operation becomes unstable
Armature voltage control method
The speed is directly proportional to the
voltage applied across the armature .
Voltage across armature can be
controlled by adding a variable
resistance in series with the
armature
Potential divider control :
If the speed control from zero to the rated
speed is required , by rheostatic method
then the voltage across the armature
can be varied by connecting rheostat in
Needed to limit the starting
current .
1.Two point starter
2.Three point starter
3.Four point starter
 Testing of DC machines
To determine the efficiency of as DC motor ,
the output and input should be known.
There are two methods.
The load test or The direct
method The indirect method
Direct method: In this method , the efficiency is
determined by knowing the input and output
power of the motor.
Indirect method: Swinburne’s test is an
indirect method of testing DC shunt
machines to predetermine the effficency , as
a motor and as a Generator. In this
method, efficiency is calculated by
determining the losses .
Shunt Motor:
Blowers and fans
Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps
Lathe machines
Machine tools
Milling
machines
Drilling machines
Series Motor:
Cranes
Hoists , Elevators
Trolleys
Conveyors
Electric locomotives