Chapter 1
The Human Organism
Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy:
• investigates body structure
• the term means to dissect Physiology:
• investigates processes and functions
• Human Physiology:
• studies the human organism Systemic Physiology: • studies body
organ-systems Cellular Physiology:
• studies body cells
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
Understand how the body:
• responds to stimuli
• environmental changes
• environmental cues
• diseases
• injury
Types of Anatomy
Systemic:
• studies body organ-systems Regional:
• studies body regions (medical schools) Surface:
• studies external features, for example, bone projections
Anatomical imaging:
• using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI)
Six levels from chemical to organism:1. Chemical:
• smallest level
• atoms, chemical bonds, molecules
2. Cellular:
• cells: basic units of life
• compartments and organelles
• examples are mitochondria, nucleus
3. Tissues:
• group of cells with similar
structure and function plus extracellular substances they release
• four broad types:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous
4. Organs:
• two or more tissue types acting together to perform
function(s)
• Examples: stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder, kidney
5. Organ-System:
• group of organs contributing to some function
• for example, digestive system, reproductive system
6. Organisms
• all organ systems working together
• includes associated microorganisms such as intestinal bacteria
Major Organs of the Body
Organ Systems of the Body1
Characteristics of Life1
Organization:
• functional interrelationships between parts Metabolism:
• sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an organism
• ability to acquire and use energy in support of these changes
Responsiveness:
• ability to sense and respond to environmental changes
• includes both internal and external environments
Characteristics of Life2
Growth:
• can increase in size
• size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
Development:
• changes in form and size
• changes in cell structure and function from generalized to
specialized—differentiation Reproduction:
• formation of new cells or new organisms
• generation of new individuals
• tissue repair
Homeostasis1
Homeostasis:
• maintenance of constant internal environment despite
fluctuations in the external or internal environment Variables:
• measures of body properties that may change in value Examples
of variables:
body temperature blood glucose levels heart rate blood cell counts
blood pressure respiratory rate
Homeostasis
Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease around a set point
Set point: normal, or average value of a variable
Over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point
Homeostasis
Set points for some variables can be temporarily adjusted depending on
body activities, as needed:
Examples Common cause of change body temperature fever
heart rate, blood pressure exercise respiratory rate
Homeostasis4
Negative feedback is the main mechanism used homeostatic regulation.
• A negative feedback response involves:
detection: of deviation away from set point and
correction: reversal of deviation toward set point and normal range
Homeostasis
The components of feedback:
1. Receptor:
• detects changes in variable
2. Control center:
• receives receptor signal
• establishes set point • sends signal to effector
3. Effector:
• directly causes change in variable
HOMEOSTASIS
Negative Feedback Control of Body Temperature
Homeostasis
Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the initial stimulus further
stimulates the response
• system response causes progressive deviation away from
• set point, outside of normal range
• not directly used for homeostasis
• some positive feedback occurs under normal conditions Example:
childbirth
• generally associated with injury, disease
• negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain homeostasis
Homeostasis
Comparison of negative feedback and positive feedback
Terminology and the
Body Plan
Anatomical position:
• person
standing erect with
face and palms
forward
• all
relational
descriptions
based on the
anatomical
position,
regardless of
body orientation
Superior: above
Inferior: below
Anterior: front
(also: ventral)
Posterior: back
(also: dorsal)
Note: In four-
legged animals,
the terms
ventral (belly)
and dorsal
(back)
correspond to
anterior and
posterior in
humans
Medial: close to
midline
Lateral: away from
midline
Proximal: close to
point of attachment
Distal: far from point
of attachment
Superficial: structure
close to the surface
Deep: structure
toward the interior of
the body
