Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts 1

Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts

1.1 Introduction

Structures whose major constituent components are steel are known as steel structure
while those with large proportion of timber components timber structures. As it will be
noted from subsequent presentations, there are great many steel and timber structures in
engineering practice

Steel and timber are used both in structural and non-structural members in various civil
engineering applications such as buildings of various types, bridges, power transmission and
communication towers, windmills, off-shore oil and gas facilities, reservoirs and other
storage structures, mines, among others. In particular, steel may also be used as a cable
system in suspension- and cable-stayed structures such as suspension bridges, cable-
supported roofs and cable-stayed towers. Their structural engineering applications of steel
also extend to manufacture of space- and aircrafts, ship structures

The main component of this coursework will be dealing with steel structures. The various
design concepts and detailing procedures for timber are similar to those involved in steel
structures and, thus, similar computational and detailing operations are followed for their
planning. Steel structures are of so many types that it is difficult, if not impossible, to
classify them on the bases of their service, shape, size or methods involved in their design.
However, from structural point of view they can be broadly categorized as either frame or
skeletal types, or shell- and plate-type structures.

Framed structures are the primary topic for discussion in this course work. They consist of
an assemblage of elongated or one-dimensional members such as roof trusses, latticed
towers, beams, columns, etc

Shell- and plate-type structures are mostly made up of steel sheets. In such structures
loads are mostly taken up by the sheet plates, which also serve as covering materials. Tanks,
aircrafts and shell-roof coverings are some examples of shell structures

AREAS OF APPLICATION

While some of the main applications outlined below are also related to timber, steel
structural members have found, the widest use in the fol1owing types of structures.

Framework or skeletal systems

- The framework of industrial building and related structures like crane girders,
platforms, etc.
- Railway, highway, pedestrian and other large- and small-span bridges.
- Very tall multi-story buildings, exhibition pavilions, roofs, floors, domes, sports-
facility

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 Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts 2

- Sheds, as well as building components such as staircases, fire-escape facilities, etc

- Special-purpose buildings such as airport terminals and railway stations, aircraft
hangars, shipyards, railway platforms
- Special structures. such as, for example, power transmission pylons, television and
radio as well as telecommunication towers, headwork for mines, underground tunnels,
oil derricks, hydraulic engineering works such as dam gates and spillway structures,
cranes, etc

Shell and plate structures

- Gas holders and tanks for the storage and distribution of gases
- Tanks and reservoirs for the storage of water, fuels and other liquids
- Bins and bunkers for the storage of loose materials like cement, grain. Etc
- Special structures such as blast furnace air heaters, gas scrubbers.
- Large diameter steel piping employed at iron and steel works coke and by-product
works, hydroelectric power plants and oil and gas pipe lines.
- Ship bulls, airplane fuselage, tank armor, etc.

Steel is finding diverse application in the construction industry. The following pictures will
reveal a number of such applications in various kinds of constructions.

Structural steel can be used to constitute the complete framing system in a high-rise
building. Either medium-sized, such as the hotel building or very tall buildings, such as the
office building can be constructed from steel (see Fig.).

Fig. 1.1 Multi Story Buildings

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Special purpose buildings such as airport terminals, railway stations, exhibition pavilions,
conference halls, aircraft hangars, shipyards, railway platforms, in which large space should
be covered with out obstruction of columns, are constructed from structural steels trusses
(see Fig.).

Fig. 1.2 Exhibition Halls (Long Span Roofs)

Cross section

Fig. 1.3 Aircraft Maintenance Hangars

Steel is a preferred choice when it comes to industrial structures as it also provides large
column-free space with fewer framing elements. Fig. 1.4 shows the model of such an
industrial building facility making use of steel framing.

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Fig. 1.4 Industrial Building (columns, beams, and roofs)

Another area where steel and timber find their use is in bridge construction. There are
various kinds of bridges where structural steel can be used effectively and efficiently. in
suspension- and cable-stayed bridges, steel plays a predominant role at least as the cabling
system. The main types of steel bridges are beam and slab, solid-web girder, truss-beam,
box girder, open-web girder, arch, cable stayed and suspension bridges. Fig. 1.7 show use of
steel in a suspension bridge construction.

a) Plate Girder Bridge b) Truss arch bridge

c) Cable-stayed Bridge d) Suspension Bridge

Fig. 1.5 Use of Steel in Bridge Construction

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Several industries and communication facilities call for towers for a variety of purposes.
Steel towers are used for types of towers including microwave transmission for
communications, radio transmission, television transmission, satellite reception, air traffic
controls, flood light stands such as in stadiums and large fly-over’ intersections, power
transmission lines, metrological measurements, tower-test. Set ups, derricks and crawler
cranes, oil drilling masts both in-land and off-shore facilities, and overhead water tanks,
among others. Figs. 1.6 show the various tower-related application of steel

a) Microwave Communication Facilities b) Power Transmission Facilities

Fig. 1.6 Use of Steel members and Plates in Tower Construction

A number of temporary structures and shed facilities for car parks, gasoline stations,
storage facilities can also be constructed from steel. One such facility is shown in Fig. 1.5

Fig. 1.7 Use of Steel members and Panels for gasoline Station

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The corrosive nature of sea water calls for special kind of construction materials for
building off-shore oil and gas facilities. Specially treated steel responds to these
requirements better than most other possible construction materials (See Fig. 1.8).

Specially treated steel finds its wide application in petrochemical industries where chemical
attack and temperature effects could be treated at their highest. Steel structures in
theses industries can form part of the facilities themselves or structural framing for the
housing structures (see Fig. 1.9).

Fig. 1.8 Use of Steel members and plates in Fig. 1.9 Use of steel in a petro-chemical industrial facility
offshore oil and gas exploration/drilling Facility

Most industrial buildings need to be provided with handling and hoisting equipment. There
are variety of such equipment used the factories and nearly all of them are built up from
structural steel. Some of the common types are cranes on gantry girders (overhead cranes),
chain pulley blocks, fork lift, derrick cranes, conveyor belts; rope ways, assembly lines,
among others. A typical overhead crane with gantry girders is shown in Fig. 1.10

Fig. 1.10

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Roof trusses of stadiums and sport facilities are usually made of either cantilever (free-
standing) or cable-stayed structural steels (see Fig.)

Fig. 1.11 Use of Steel for roof trusses of stadiums

Concrete construction requires some kind of temporary support during construction up until
when the concrete has set and attained the necessary strength to support itself. In this
scenario, scaffolding and formworks, that can be built up from steel members can be used
effectively and efficiently (see Fig. 1.12).

Fig. 1.12
Use of Steel
Scaffolding in Tunnel Construction

Bracing systems are usually made from structural steel and they provide lateral stability
for a building by resisting winds and earthquakes (see Fig. 1.13).

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Fig. 1.13 Use of Steel Members for Bracing Systems

Steel is also used in composite construction with concrete as shown in Fig. 1.14. This
construction practice improves the fire-resistance property and prevents corrosion of steel
in addition to improving the load-resisting capacity of the resulting structural members

Fig. 1.14 Use of Steel for Composite Construction

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MERITS OF STEEL STRUCTURES

The principal merits of steel members are:

 The ability to resist high loads with a comparatively small size and light weight of
members. Thus for the same strength, steel members are smaller in size and lighter
in weight, as compared to members made of other materials (except for some high
strength aluminum alloys).
 Due to its high density, steel is completely non-porous.
 The possibility of industrializing the construction work by the use of pre-
fabricated members and mechanized erection at the construction site.
 A very long service life, provided care is taken
 The possibility of disassembling or replacing some steel members of a structure, for
strengthening purposes.
 It is an environmental friendly material by being recycled.

With particular reference to high-rise buildings, Steel is favored over other construction
materials such as reinforced concrete for various reasons. Among these are:
 Shorter erection period permits an earlier recovery of capital
 Steel offers wide-span frames. It provides column-free, uninterrupted interior
space. This offers greater interior design scope and results in more cost-efficient
buildings.
 Steel structural members offer the absolute accuracy of dimensions. Uniform
quality possible only with pre-fabrication under close control in the plant that
reduces man-hour requirements at the site-an important consideration in the face
of unavailability of skilled labor
 Steel offers greater possibilities for imaginative architectural design
 Finally, cost comparison studies have revealed that the construction cost of
structural steel is generally more economical than reinforced concrete

Thus, structural steel is the preferred choice for speed of erection, value and quality

The principal drawback of steel members is their susceptibility to corrosion, which

necessitates their painting or the use of other methods for their protection. The second
drawback of steel is its low fire resistance. At high temperatures steel loses most of its
strength, leading to excessive deformation or failure

DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND DESIGN FORMATS

Engineered structures are of such variety that they defy any attempt to enumerate them
except in a general way. The countless problems which arise in their design have prompted
engineers to specialize in the design of particular structures or groups of related
structures, such as, for examples steel structures or timber structures for bridges,
buildings, towers, etc

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Design procedure

There are a number of phases in a design process - from inception to detailing and quantity
estimation.

Functional Planning/Design

The first and often the most difficult problem in design is the development of a plan that
will enable the structure to fulfill effectively the purpose for which it is to be built. If the
structure is a building, for example, the designer must create a plan which is adapted to the
site; which provides a suitable arrangement of rooms, corridors, stairways, elevator, etc.;
which will be aesthetically acceptable and which can be built at a price the client is
prepared to pay. This phase of design, sometimes called functional planning.

Structural Planning / Design

Structural design is the second major step in the design process although the planning of
structural scheme is never independent of the functional plan. Depending on the type of
structures, the extent to which the scheme must be developed during the functional
planning stage may depend upon the structure. For example, the location of the columns in a
building usually must be worked out with the functional plan and sufficient space must be
anticipated between finished ceiling and finished floor of adjacent stories to accommodate
the floor construction. On the other hand, the functional plans and structural schemes of
highway bridges or communication towers are usually not so strongly interdependent.

It is usually necessary to make tentative cost estimates for several preliminary structural
layouts. Sometimes this may have to be carried out while the functional plan is being
developed; sometimes it can be done at a later stage. Selection of structural materials must
be based upon consideration of availability of specific materials and the corresponding
skilled labor, relative cost, and wage scales, and the suitability of the materials for the
structure.

The third stage of the design is a structural analysis. Although design specifications and
building codes usually describe the nature and magnitude of the loads to which the
structure may be subjected, at times the engineer must make the decision. Once the loads
are defined, a structural analysis must be made to determine the internal forces which will
be produced in the various members of the structure. Although this is a fairly routine
procedure, simplifying assumptions must invariably be made before the principles of
mechanics can be applied. The designer must be conscious of his or her assumptions to
ensure that the structure as designed can be expected to behave accordingly.

In the fourth phase of the design process, the engineer proportions the members of the
structural system. The latter must be chosen so that they will be able to withstand, with an
appropriate margin of safety, the forces which the structural analysis has disclosed.

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Familiarity with the methods and processes of fabrication and their limitations and with the
techniques of constructions as well as their limitations is indispensable in the design
process.

The four steps in the structural design process discussed so far are seldom, if ever,
distinct, and in many cases they must be carried along more or less simultaneously.
Furthermore, they assume varying degree of importance relative to one another.

Design is necessarily a trial-and-error procedure. Most structures are statically

indeterminate and require that member properties be specified before the analysis for load
effects can be carried out. After the member forces have been determined, the validity of
the member selection must be evaluated. If changes in member properties are required, a
re-analysis must be carried out. The procedure must be repeated until the members’
selected and resultant member forces are in acceptable arrangement. The development of
the computer has greatly facilitated this phase of the design process, but the judgment and
experience of the designer are impossible to build into a completely logical system as
required by the computer.

Development of procedures for translating design specifications into computer programs

continues to receive the attention of engineers in all specialties. There are also a number of
specialized and industry-targeted such software products available nowadays. Many of such
software can now help the engineer from planning to analysis, design, detailing to quantity
estimations. Such programs, however, should be utilized only after the engineer has a
thorough understanding of the requirements of the specifications, the method of analysis
employed in the program, and the behavior of many types of structural members.

Design Philosophy

Structural design should be performed to satisfy three criteria: strength, serviceability,

and economy.

Strength pertains to the general integrity and safety of the structure under extreme load
conditions. The structure is expected to withstand occasional overloads without severe
distress and damage during its lifetime.

Serviceability refers to the proper functioning of the structure as related to its

appearance, maintainability, and durability under normal, or service load, conditions.
Deflection, vibration, permanent deformation, cracking, and corrosion are some design
considerations associated with serviceability.

Economy concerns the overall material and labor costs required for the design, fabrication,
erection, and maintenance processes of the structure.

A structure should be designed and fabricated to fulfill the following conditions:

 Remain fit for use during its intended life

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 Sustain the loads, which may occur during construction, installation and usage
 Localize damage due to accidental overloads.
 Have adequate durability in relation to maintenance costs.

The above requirements can be satisfied by using suitable materials, appropriate design and
detailing and specifying quality control procedures for construction and, if necessary, for
maintenance program.

Design Formats

The design of steel structures may be controlled by several criteria described as " limits of
structural usefulness ". They are as follows:

 Hypothetical attainment of yield point

 Attainment of maximum plastic strength
 Excessive deflections at service load and drift limitations
 Instability
 Fatigue
 Fracture

One or more of these conditions must form the basis for any rational design procedure and
their consideration enters into the subject matters to be presented in the subsequent-
sections for the design of several types of members and structural components.

As a result of the various design criteria, three major design methods and formats have
evolved in practice. At present, steel design can be performed in accordance with one of the
following three formats worldwide.

Al1owable Stress Design (ASD)

In the allowable stress design (ASD), a member is selected such that under expected loads,
known as service or working loads, the stress will not exceed one of the previously
described limits of usefulness. It is performed by specifying expected working design loads
and allowable stresses. The factor of safety is inherent, but usual1y not stated. Also, the
limit of usefulness is usual1y undesignated

This design methodology has been in use for decades for steel design of buildings and
bridges. It continues to enjoy popularity among structural engineers engaged in steel
building design. In allowable stress (or working stress) design, member stresses computed
under the action of service (or working) loads are compared to some pre-designated
stresses, called allowable stresses. The allowable stresses are usually expressed as a
function of the yield stress (fy) or tensile stress (fu) of the material. To account for
overload, under-strength, and approximations used in structural analysis, a factor of safety
is applied to reduce the nominal resistance of the structural member to a fraction of its
tangible capacity.

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In so far as the method of analysis is concerned, allowable stress design is based on elastic
analysis to obtain the structural responses such as moments, shear and axial forces that a
member must be designed to carry.

The general formula for an allowable stress design has the form:
Rn m
  Qi
Fs i 1
Where: Rn = nominal resistance of the structural component expressed in units of stress
Qi = service or working stress computed from the applied working load type i.
i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)
m = number of load types considered in the design
 allowable stress of structural component
Rn
Fs

Plastic Design

Plastic design makes use of the fact that steel sections have reserved strength beyond the
first yield condition, When a section is under flexure, yielding of the cross section occurs in
a progressive manner, commencing with the fibers farthest away from the neutral axis and
ending with the fibers nearest the neutral axis. This phenomenon of progressive yielding
referred to as plastification, means that the cross section does not fail at first yield. The
additional moment that a cross section can carry in excess of the moment that corresponds
to first yield varies depending on the shape of the cross section. To quantify such reserved
capacity, a quantity called shape factor, defined as the ratio of the plastic moment (moment
that causes the entire cross section to yield, resulting in the formation of a plastic hinge)
to the yield moment (moment that causes yielding of the extreme fibers only) is used.

For an indeterminate structure, failure of the structure will not occur after the formation
of a plastic hinge. After complete yielding of a cross section, force (or, more precisely,
moment) redistribution will occur, in which the unfailed portion of the structure continues
to carry any additional loadings. Failure will occur only when enough cross sections have
yielded to render the structure unstable, resulting in the formation of a plastic collapse
mechanism.

In plastic design the factor of safety is applied to the applied loads to obtain factored
loads. A design is said to have satisfied the strength criterion if the load effects (i.e.,
forces, shears, and moments) computed using these factored loads do not exceed the
nominal plastic strength of the structural component. Plastic design has the form:

m
Rn    Qni
i 1

Where: Rn = nominal plastic strength of the member

Qni = nominal load effects from the loads of type i.
i = load type (dead, live, wind, etc.)

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m = number of load types considered in the design

 = load factor

In steel building design the load factor  is given by the AISC Specification as 1.7, if Qn
consists of dead and live gravity loads only, and as 1.3, if Qn consists of dead and live gravity
loads acting in conjunction with wind or earthquake loads.

Limit State Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design

Limit state is a Probabilistic design procedure in which a structure, or part of a structure,

is considered unfit for use when such a limiting condition exceed a particular state, called a
limit state, beyond which it infringes one of the criteria governing its performance thus
making the structure unable to meet design performance criteria. All relevant limit states
shall be considered in the design so as to ensure an adequate degree of safety,
serviceability and durability.

Three classes of limit states are recognized: ultimate limit states, serviceability limit
states and durability limit states. Ultimate limit states are those which if exceeded can
lead to collapse of part or the whole of the structure, endangering safety of people.
Serviceability limit states correspond to states beyond which specified service criteria are
no longer met. Durability limit states can be regarded as subsets of the ultimate and
serviceability limit states depending on whether, for example, the corrosion affects the
strength of the structure or its aesthetic appearance. Structures should be designed by
considering all relevant limit states.

A design is considered satisfactory according to the strength criterion if the resistance

exceeds the load effects by a comfortable margin. In actual design, a resistance factor ‘ m’
is applied to the nominal resistance of the structural component to account for any
uncertainties associated with the determination of its strength, and a load factor ‘ l’ is
applied to each load type to account for the uncertainties and difficulties associated with
determining its actual load magnitude. Different load factors are used for different load
types to reflect the varying degree of uncertainty associated with the determination of
load magnitudes. In general, a lower load factor is used for a load that is more predictable
and a higher load factor is used for a load that is less predictable.

Mathematically it can be expressed as:

Rn m
   li Qi
 m i 1
Where:
 design strength
Rn
m
m
  li Qi  the required strength or load effects for a given load combination
i 1

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Specifications and codes provide the values of  pertaining to different loads and also
outline the load combinations to be used on the right-hand side of the above equation. For a
safe design, all load combinations should be investigated, and the design is based on the
worst-case scenario.

Although, allowable stress design has been used for decades, the world wide trend is to
ward the limit state approach to design. The national building codes, both EBCS 3 1995 far
steel and EBCS 5 1995 far timber structures are also based on the concepts of the limit
state design. In view of this trend and in cognizance of the likelihood that limit state
design/LRFD will be the mainstream design method henceforth, only limit state/LRFD
provisions will be covered in this coursework. So, interested readers on others are advised
to refer to relevant literature.

Materials
Steel is one of the mast important structural materials. Properties of particular
importance in structural usage are high strength compare to any other available material,
and ductility (i.e., its ability to deform substantially in either tension or compression before
failure). The most important structural properties of steel are yield strength and ultimate
strength, modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, Poisson’s ratio, coefficient of thermal
expansion, and its density.

Stress-strain Behavior of Structural steel

A schematic diagram of an engineering stress-strain curve of steel obtained from a simple

tension test is shown in Fig. 1.14.

Fig. 1.15 Idealized stress-strain curve

Elastic region

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In this region the stress is proportional to the strain, and Hooke's law applies. The constant
of proportionality is the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, E. The modulus of
elasticity for steel has values ranging from 190 - 210 GPa. The modulus of elasticity does
not vary appreciably for the different grades of steel used in construction, and a value of
200 GPa is often used for design. The elastic region ends when the stress reaches h" the
yield stress. For stress below 1; no. plastic, or permanent, deformation will occur in the
steel section

Table 1.1 gives the yield point and the ultimate strength of several grades of steel,
classified according to ASTM designation, and of interest to the structural designer.
Inelastic Region

In this region the steel section deforms plastically under a constant stress, fy- The extent
of this deformation differs for different steel grades. Generally, the ductility (the ability
of a material to undergo plastic deformation prior to fracture) decreases with increasing
steel strength. Ductility is a very important attribute of steel. The ability of structural
steel to deform considerably before failure by fracture allows the structure to undergo
force redistribution when yielding occurs, and it enhances the energy absorption
characteristic of the structure

Strain-Hardening Region

In this region deformation is accompanied by an increase in stress. The peak point of the
engineering stress-strain curve is the ultimate stress, fu. fu is the largest stress the
material can attain under uniaxial condition. In a uniaxial tension test, the specimen
experiences non-uniform plastic deformation (necking) once the stress reaches fu. Beyond fu
deformation proceeds at a rapid rate and equilibrium can be maintained only by a reduction
in the applied load. For design purposes, fu is often regarded as the stress at which failure
is imminent.

Poisson’s Ratio

Poisson’s ratio, , is the absolute value of the ratio of the transverse strain to longitudinal
strain under axial load. In the idealized elastic range Poisson’s ratio for structural steels is
approximately 0.3 while in the plastic range it is about 0.5.

Ductility

Ductility, , is the ability of materials to deform beyond the elastic limit. Structurally it
may be defined as the ratio of the total strain tot (p + y) to the elastic strain y.

Sear modulus

Shear modulus, G, is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. The shear modulus, G, is
presumed to be constant (= 80 GPa ) for all structural steels.

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Thermal expansion

The design of structures to serve under atmospheric temperature rarely involves concern
about high temperature behavior. Knowledge of such behavior is desirable when specifying
welding procedures, and when concerned with the effects of fire as the modulus of
elasticity, yield strength and tensile strength all reduces with increase in temperature. The
coefficient of thermal expansion, , for structural steel is 12 x 10-6 per oc.

Density

The density, ,

Fatigue

Fatigue failure can occur in members or structures subjected to fluctuating loads such as
crane girders, bridges and offshore structures. Failure occurs through progressive growth
of a crack that starts at a fault and the failure load may be well below its static value.

Welded connections have the greatest effect on the fatigue strength of steel structures.
On the other hand, bolted connections do not reduce the strength under fatigue loading. To
avoid fatigue failure, detail should be such that stress concentrations and abrupt changes
of section are avoided in regions of tensile stress.

Brittle

Structural steel is ductile at temperatures above 10oC, but it becomes more brittle as the
temperature falls, and fracture can occur at low stresses below 0°c. To reduce the
likelihood of brittle fracture, it is necessary to take care in the selection of the steel to be
used and to pay special attention to the design detail. Thin plates are more resistant than
thick ones, abrupt changes of section and stress concentration should be avoided. Fillets
welds should not be laid down across tension flanges and intermittent welding should not be
used.

Types of Steel

Structural steels used for construction purposes are generally grouped into several major
classifications according to national and international standards. The American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) classifications are among such widely used standards. The
Ethiopian Building Code Standard EBCS 3 1995 also classifies according to their strength.
The following are per the ASTM classification

Carbon Steels (ASTM A36, ASTM A529, ASTM A709)

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In addition to iron, the main ingredients of this category of steels are carbon (maximum
content 1.7%) and manganese (maximum content 0.65%), with a small amount (<0.6%) of
silicon and copper

Depending on the amount of carbon content, different types of carbon steels can be
identified:
- Low-carbon steel: carbon content < 0. 5%
- Mild carbon steel: carbon content varies from 0. 15 to 0.29%
- Medium-carbon steel: carbon content 0.30-0.59%
- High-carbon steel: carbon content 0.60 - 1.70%

Fig. 1.16 Typical stress-strain curves

The most commonly used structural carbon steel has mild carbon content. It is extremely
ductile with well defined yield point (see Fig.). A36 is used mainly for buildings; A529 is
occasionally used for bolted and welded building frames and trusses, and A 709 is used
primarily for bridges.

High-strength Low-alloy Steels (ASTM A441, ASTM A572)

These steels possess enhanced strength as a result of presence of one or more alloying
agents, such as chromium, copper, nickel, silicon, and vanadium; in addition to the basic
elements of iron, carbon, and manganese. Normally, the total quantity, of all the alloying
elements is below 5% of the total composition. This category includes steels having yield
stresses from 275 to 480 MPa with a well defined yield point (see Fig.). These steels
generally have higher corrosion resistance capacity than carbon steels.

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Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels (ASTM A852, ASTM A514)

The quantities of alloying elements used in these steels are in excess of those used in
carbon and low-alloy steels. In addition, they are heat-treated by quenching and tempering
to enhance their strengths. These steels do not exhibit well-defined yield points (see Fig.).
Their yield stresses are determined by the 0.2% offset strain method. These steels,
despite their enhanced strength, have reduced ductility (see Fig. ), and care must be
exercised in their usage, as the design limit state for the structure or structural elements
may be governed by serviceability considerations (e.g. deflection, vibration) or local buckling
(under compression).

Table1.1 gives a summary of the specified minimum yield stress (fy) and the specified
minimum tensile strengths (fu), and Table 1.2 gives the general usages for these various
categories of steel in accordance with ASTM designation.
Table 1.1 Properties of steels used for buildings and bridges

Table 1.1 Continued

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Table 1.2 Uses of various Structural steels

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Table 1.3 Continued

EBCS 3, 1995 recognizes three grades of ordinary hot rolled steel as shown in Table 1

Table 1.4 Nominal value of yield strength fy and ultimate tensile strength fu for various grades of structural steel
(EBCS 3, 1995)
Nominal Steel Thickness t (mm)
Grade t  40mm 40mm < t  100mm
fy (MPa) fu (MPa) fy (MPa) fu (MPa)
Fe 360 235 360 215 340
Fe 430 275 430 255 410
Fe 510 355 510 335 49
Note: t is the nominal thickness of the element

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 Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts 23

Structural Steel Shapes

In general, there are three procedures by which steel shapes can be formed: hot-rolled,
cold-formed, and combined. Most of the rolling is done on hot steel, with the product
termed hot-rolled steel. Sometimes the thinner plates are further rolled or bent, after
cooling, into cold-rolled or "cold-formed" steel products. Regardless of the manner by which
the steel shape is formed, it must be manufactured to meet certain international standards
such as ASTM or European standards. The commonly used standard steel shapes include the
Angle, the Tube, the Channel, and the I section. The I is available in two classifications. The
most widely used is the W-shape (wide flange beam) and The S shape (the American
Standard beam).

Cold formed steel shapes are formed in rolls or brakes from sheet or strip steel. Because
of the great variety which can be produced, shapes of this type, unlike hot rolled shapes,
have not been standardized.

Fig. 1.17 Standard rolled shapes

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 Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts 24

Fig. 1.18 Some cold-formed shapes

The dimensions and geometric properties of the various hot rolled sections utilized in design
calculation are listed in the tables of manual (see Tables at the back which are obtained
from British Standards)

Structural Fasteners

Every structure is an assemblage of individual parts or members which must be fastened

together, usually at the ends of its members. The two main fastening means are bolting and
welding (with a few and isolated case also riveting and pins). Connections are structural
elements used for joining different members of a framework.

Bolts

Four basic types of bolts are commonly in use; they are designated by ASTM as A307,
A325, A490, and A449

A307 Bolts: These are called unfinished or ordinary bolts and are made from low-carbon
steel. They are furnished in two grades, A and B, the former for the general purposes and
the latter for joints in pipe systems. They are available with several head and nut
configurations, but the hexagonal and square head are most commonly used.

A325 Bolts: The A325 bolt is made of medium carbon steel. It is also used in both hot-
rolled and cold-formed construction. e are called high-strength bolts. A325 bolts are made
of medium-carbon steel. They are used in both hot-rolled and cold-formed construction.
A490 bolts are made from quenched and tempered alloy steel and thus have higher
strength, than A325 bolts. They are used for general construction purposes.

A449 Bolts: The A449 bolt also of medium carbon steel, is furnished in three ranges of
diameter.

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 Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts 25

490 Bolts: The A490 bolt is made of alloy steel in one tensile-strength grade.

Table 1.5 Properties of structural bolts (ASTM)

Table 1.6 Nominal values of yield strength fyb and ultimate tensile strength fub for Bolts (EBCS 3, 1995)

Bolt Grade 4.6 4.8 5.6 5.8 6.8 8.8 10.9

fyb (MPa) 240 320 300 400 480 640 900
fub (MPa) 400 400 500 500 600 800 1000

Welding

Welding is the process of joining metal parts by means of heat and pressure, which cause
fusion of the parts (resistance welding), or by heating the metal to the fusion temperature,
with or without the addition of weld metal (fusion welding).

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 Chapter One: Introduction, Material and Design Concepts 26

Welds are classified according to their type as groove, fillet, plug, and slot. The detailed
treatment of welding and the electrodes which are used as filler materials are specified in
different standards. The detail will be covered in chapter seven, the design of connections.

Specifications and Building Codes

Then design of concrete structures is generally done within the framework of codes giving
specific requirements for materials, structural analysis, member proportioning, etc.
Specification serves as a guide for the engineer to arrive at a safe and acceptable design.
It is also a guarantee to the owner that the resulting structure will comply with basic
standards to ensure safety, utility and economy.

The designer doing concrete structures in various disciplines, such as buildings, bridges, etc,
will have to follow closely the relevant design requirements in the appropriate specifications
and design codes as minimum requirements.

The following are some important specifications for concrete structures.

- EBSC 1 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Basis of Design and Actions on
Structures.
- EBCS 2 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for the Design of Concrete Structures.
- EBCS 4 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Design of Composite Steel and Concrete
Structures.
- EBCS 8 Ethiopian Building Code Standard for Basis Earthquake design of
Structures.
- EC 2 European Standards for the Structural Use of Concrete
- ACI American Concrete Institute (building code requirements for structural
concrete)
- AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
- BS 8100 British Standards for The Structural Use of Concrete Works in
Buildings
- ASTM American Society for Testing Materials

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