NIRMALA COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE ,MELOOR

Functional grammar and communication in English -Notes

Module -1 Basic concepts

 Unit -1 word order and the sentence pattern

Word order means the way how words are arranged in the sequential or logical order to form a
meaningful phrase ,Clause or sentence.

Eg: speaks / English /he /well.

He speaks English well.

Every language has its own sentence structures and rules included with it.The most common
sentence pattern in English language are:

a. SV(Subject+Verb)-Sita dances

b. SVO(Subject+Verb+DirectObject)-

Anjitha is writing a letter.

c. SVC(Subject+Verb+Complement)-Flowers are beautiful.

d. SVOC(Subject+Verb+Object+Complement )-The students sang the song loudly.

e. SVOO(Subject+Verb+IndirectObject+Direct Object)-The teacher gave him a present.

 Unit -2 Concord or subject verb agreement

Rule 1- The subject and verb must be agree in number this means if the subject is singular
theVerb should be singular.If the subject is plural verb should be plural.

Eg:He plays cricket.

They play cricket.

Rule 2 -When the subject part consist of two or more nouns or pronouns joined by and ,then use
a plural verb.

Eg:Father,Mother and children walk to the park.

Rule 3 -When the subjects are joined by either /or and neither/ nor we how to use singular verb
verb.

Eg:Neither his brother nor his sister is coming for the wedding.

Rule 4 - If the sentence begins with ‘one of the’ followed by a plural noun,verb will be in singular
form which agrees with one.

Eg:One of the girls is absent.

Rule 5 -In sentences that begin with ‘here’, ‘there’ the verb will be according to the succeeding
subject.

Eg:Here are the chocolates.

Rule 6 -The sentences with each ,each one ,either ,neither ,everyone ,everybody
anyone,anybody,nobody,somebody ,someone and no one are singular and requires a singular
verb.

Eg:Everyone has entered the hall.

Rule 7 -If the subject includes sums of money,Periods of time or distances as a single unit we use
singular verbs.

Eg:1000 rupees is a high price to pay.

Rule 8 -Uncountable nouns take a singular verb.

Eg:Education is the key to success.

Rule 9 -In the case of words such as ‘a lot of, all of, some of’ etc. in a sentence if the noun after of
each singular then use a singular verb if plural use a plural verb.

Eg:All of the cake is gone.

All of the cakes are gone.

Rule 10 -Collective nouns generally imply more than one person but are considered singular and
take a singular verb.

Eg:The group meets in the seminar hall.

Rule 11 -No one such as mathematics ,civics ,news etc. are plural inform but are singular in
meaning and hence use singular verbs.

Eg:Mathematics is a tough subject for my daughter.

Rule 12 -When the subject is followed by words such as ‘as well as,Along with,Besides’ etc. take a
singular verb if the subject is singular.

Eg:Manav as well as his cousin is expected shortly.

 Unit-3 The sentence and Types of sentences (based on functions)

A sentence can be defined as an arrangement of a group of words that express a complete idea
or thought.There are different types of sentences based on functions.

Declarative or assertive sentences

Eg:She is doing her homework now.

Interrogative sentences

Eg:Are you doing your homework?

Exclamatory sentences

Eg:What a beautiful flower it is!

Imperative sentences

Eg:Do your homework.

 Unit 4 - Types of sentences based on clothes structure

A close consist of a group of words that includes a subject and a finite verb.A close contains only
one subject and one verb and it forms a part of the sentence.So basically descendants can be
split into two parts: the subject and the predicate predicate.

1. Principal or independent clause

An independent clause has its own existence and makes a meaningful sentence and hence It is
also known as the principal clause.

Eg:Mira read the whole story.

2. Subordinate or dependent clause

A dependent clause cannot function on it on as it leaves an idea or thought in complete.It is also

called a subordinate clause.A dependent clause alone cannot form a complete sentence, so it
supports the independent clauses to form a meaningful sentence.

Eg:The guy spend the night on the road because he was homeless.
3. Noun clause

A noun clause e is a dependent clause that functions as a noun. A noun close can beIs subject
object or subject complement and it starts with the same words that begin with adjective clauses
example:that,who,which,when,where whether, why ,how.

Eg:What we saw at Thiruvanthapuram zoo was amazing.

1. Simple sentence

A simple sentence has only one independent clause and express a complete meaning

Eg:They are playing football.

2. Compound sentence

A compound sentence consist of two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating

conjunctions like and, but ,or,yet,so etc..

Eg:Sheila wanted play in the rain,but her mother did not allow her.

3. Complex sentence

A complex sentence comprises an independent clause and a dependent clause.A dependent

clause starts with a subordinating conjunction such as al though, because, since ,unless, when or
a relative pronoun such as who ,that ,which.

Eg: I saw a woman ,who was crying.

4. Compound -complex sentence

A compound complex sentence include at least two independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.

Eg:My friend could not come to the party because he was ill, so I was unhappy.

 Unit 5 -Transformation of sentences

The transformation of a sentence means changing its form without changing the sense or
meaning of the sentence.

Eg:

1. Declarative sentence into an interrogative sentence.

She is smart(D)
Is she smart?(In)

He has completed the work.(D)

Has he completed the work?(In)

I never asked him to help me.(D)

Did I ever ask him to help me?(In)

There is no fun in doing that.(D)

Is there any fun in doing that?(In)

2. Interrogative sentence into an assertive sentence.

Eg:Was he attending the interview?(In)

He was attending the interview.(D)

Isn't she very kind?(In)

She is very kind.(D)

3. Exclamatory sentence into an assertive sentence

Eg:How beautiful she is!(Ex)

She is very beautiful.(D)

What a delicious meal!(Ex)

This meal is a delicious one.(D)

4. Imperative sentence into an assertive sentence.

Eg:Please, get me a glass of water.(Im)

You are requested to get me a glass of water.(D)

5. Imperative sentence into interrogative sentence

Eg:Stop talking(Im)

Will you stop talking?(In)

6. Interrogative to imperative sentence

Eg:Will you manage this class?(In)

Manage this class.(Im)

Will you open the door?(In)

Open the door.(Im)

 Unit 6 -affirmative and negative sentences

sentences can be of two primary groups affirmative or positive and negative sentences in
affirmative sentence simply states or declares something that is positive, while in a negative
sentence which is it’s Polar opposite means something is not so.We can follow simple rules to
transform positive sentences into negative sentences without changing the meaning.Some
examples are:

The medicine is cheap.(affirmative)

The medicine is not expensive.(negative)

I will always remember my mother's advice.(affirmative)

I will never forget my mother's advice.(negative)

He sometimes smokes at parties.(affirmative)

He does not always smoke at parties.(negative)

 Unit 7 - Connectives

Connectives are those words or phrases used to link clauses or sentences together.Connectives in
English commonly come under three categories : conjunctions, adverbs and prepositions.

LIST OF CONJUNCTION WORDS

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS

(FANBOYS)

• F is for "for"

• A is for "and"

• N is for "nor"

• B is for "but"

• O is for "or"

• Y is for "yet"
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

both/and

whether/or

not only/but also

either/or

neither/nor

just/so

SUBORDINATING

CONJUNCTIONS

after

if only

just as

although

as

as if

as long as

where

wherever

whereas

as much as

where if

whether

 Unit 8 -Collocations

The word ‘collocation’ is made up of two words co -meaning together and location -meaning
place. So call locations are words that are located together or a group of two or more words that
like to hang out together following examples are some common collocations in English:
Make tea, do homework,equal rights, admitted to, happily married, highly recommended etc….

 Unit 9 -Punctuations

Punctuations can be defined as the system of signs or symbols that we used to separate
sentences and parts of sentences to make their meaning clear and each symbol is known as a
punctuation mark.The most commonly used punctuation marks are:

1. Period/ full stop

2. Comma

3. Semicolon

4. Colon

5. Apostrophe

Punctuation: key Points:  A bunch of marks or signs used to bring clarity of expression in
writing .  Punctuation helps the writer clearly convey the message.  Brings accuracy in writing.
 Strengthens the arguments.  Helps emphasize the major idea discussed in the paper/ article. 
Wrong use of punctuation makes the ideas vague and complicates meaning.

Important punctuation marks: key Points

Comma ( ,)  Commas are the most frequently used punctuation marks.

 Use a comma after certain introductory words or phrases.

 Use commas to separate words and word groups in a series of three or more items.

 Use a comma to separate two adjectives when the adjectives are interchangeable.

 In sentences where two independent clauses are joined by connectors such as and, or,

but, etc., put a comma at the end of first rules.

 To set off a quote from the rest of the sentence.

 To list nouns in a sentence

 To separate interrupting words and expressions in a sentence

Semicolon (;)

 Use a semicolon to separate two sentences when there is no coordinating conjunction

such as and, but, or, nor, for .

 If the two sentences are joined by a conjunctive adverb, such as however, consequently,

therefore, or moreover, use a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after it.

 Use a semicolon to separate two sentences joined with a coordinating conjunction when

commas are contained within either of the sentences.

 Use a semicolon to separate items in a series if there are commas within the items.

 A semicolon can also be used to replace a period

Colon (:)

 To introduce a series of items in a list.

 To introduce explanations.  To begin or introduce a quotation.

 To separate two independent clauses where the first introduces or explains the second.

Double quotation Mark ( “ ”)

 To quote something.

 To show quotations inside quotations.

 To set off titles of essays, journal, and magazine articles, poems and short stories.

Single quotation mark (' ')

 To emphasize a word or a term.

 To show a quotation inside a quotation.

Apostrophe ( ' )

 To show contractions and possession.

 Use an apostrophe to show omissions.  Contractions are not common in academic writing.

Parenthesis and bracket ( ) [ ]

 To enclose information that clarifies the meaning of the preceding or following sentence.

 To expand abbreviations and to insert dates.

 In academic writing parentheses are used to give in-text citation.  Brackets are used to insert a
clarification, a translation, parenthesis within parenthesis, a change in capitalisation.
Dash (---)  It is also known as 'em dash'.

 It is slightly different from en dash, and the hyphen.

 Dash is three times longer than a hyphen.

 A comma, colon, and parenthesis can be replaced by a dash.

 It is used to indicate a break in a sentence and also to give some additional information.

 A dash is also used to indicate inclusive page numbers and dates.

Hyphen (-)

 Put the hyphen between two parts of a compound word

 Insert a hyphen before a suffix or after the prefix.

 Compound numbers less than 100 are split with a hyphen.

Period ( .)

 Use a period at the end of a statement.

 Use a period after an abbreviation

 Sentences ending with question marks(?) or exclamation marks(!) do not require periods

 In sentences ending with parenthesis the period is placed outside parenthesis. If

Parenthesis contains a full sentence the period is placed inside parenthesis.

Capitalisation

 Capitalise the title of a book.  Capitalise the initial letters of the words in the title of an article
or essay, chapters of abook, and titles of journals.

 Prepositions and coordinating conjunctions are not capitalised unless they are the first word in
a title.

 Capitalise the first word after a period or a full-stop.

 Capitalise proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns.

 Capitalise days of the week and months of the year, brand names, historical events, name of
institutions, nicknames, races, nationalities, and religions.