Locomotion is the voluntary movements resulting in a change in location.

All locomotion are movements but all movements are not locomotion. Both are interlinked. E.g.
 In Paramoecium, cilia help in the movement of food through cytopharynx and in locomotion.
 Hydra use tentacles to capture prey and for locomotion.
 Limbs help to change body postures and for locomotion.
Types of movement in human being
 Amoeboid movement: By pseudopodia formed by streaming of protoplasm as in Amoeba. Cytoskeletal
elements like microfilaments also help for this. E.g. Macrophages & leucocytes.
 Ciliary movement: By cilia. E.g. ciliary movements in trachea (to remove dust particles and foreign
substances), and oviducts (for the passage of ova).
 Muscular movement: By muscles. E.g. movement of limbs.
Flagellar movement helps in the swimming of spermatozoa, maintenance of water current in the canal
system of sponges and in locomotion of Protozoans like Euglena.

HUMAN MUSCULAR SYSTEM

It includes muscles which are mesodermal in origin.

Muscles constitute 40-50% of the body weight.

Muscles have excitability, contractility, extensibility & elasticity.

Based on location, muscles are 3 types:

Visceral (Non-
Skeletal (striated) striated) Cardiac
muscles muscles muscles
Attached to In visceral
skeleton organs In heart wall
Striations
present Absent Present
Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
Rich blood Poor blood Rich blood
supply supply supply
Fatigue muscle Non-fatigue Non-fatigue
Multinucleate Uninucleate Uninucleate
More Less More
mitochondria mitochondria mitochondria

STRUCTURE OF STRIATED MUSCLE

Skeletal muscle is made of muscle bundles (fascicles) held together by collagenous connective tissue
layer (fascia).Each fascicle contains many muscle fibres (muscle cells).
Muscle fibres are lined by plasma membrane (sarcolemma) enclosing
the sarcoplasm.
Each muscle fibre contains myofilaments (myofibrils).
Each myofibril has alternate dark (Anisotropic or A-band) and light striations
(Isotropic or I-band). This is due to the presence of 2
fibrous contractile proteins- thin Actin filament and thick Myosin filament.
I-bands contain actin. A-bands contain actin and myosin. They are arranged
parallel to each other.
 A-band bears a lighter middle region (H band) formed of only myosin. A thin dark
line (M-line) runs through the centre of H-zone.
I-band is bisected by a dense dark band called Z-line.
Region between two Z-lines is called sarcomere. They are the functional units of
muscle contraction.
Structure of contractile proteins
An actin filament is made of 2 filamentous (F) actins which form double helix.
F-actin is a polymer of monomeric Globular (G) actins.
Actin contains 2 other proteins (tropomyosin & troponin).
Two filaments of tropomyosin run along the grooves of the F-actin double helix.
Troponin has 3 subunits. It is seen at regular intervals on tropomyosin.
In the resting state, a subunit of troponin masks the binding sites for myosin on the actin filaments.
Each myosin filament is a polymer of many monomeric proteins called Meromyosins.
A meromyosin has 2 parts:
 Heavy meromyosin or HMM or cross arm (globular head + short arm): It
projects outwards.
 Light meromyosin or LMM (tail).
The globular head is an active ATPase enzyme and has binding sites for ATP and
active sites for actin.
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
According to sliding filament theory, contraction of a muscle fibre occurs by the sliding of thin
filaments over thick filaments.
The steps are given below:
 An impulse from the CNS reaches the neuromuscular junction (Motor-end plate) via motor
neuron.
Neuromuscular junction is the synapse between a motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the
muscle fibre.
A motor neuron + muscle fibres = a motor unit.
 Synaptic vesicles release a neurotransmitter Acetylcholine. It generates an action potential in
the sarcolemma that spreads through the muscle fibre. It causes the release of Ca2+ ions
from sarcoplasmic cisternae into sarcoplasm.
 Ca binds with a subunit of troponin on actin filaments and unmask the active sites for myosin.
 Using energy from ATP hydrolysis, myosin head binds to active sites on the actin to
form cross bridge. This pulls actin filaments on both sides towards the centre of A-band. Actin
filaments partially overlap so that H-zone disappears.
 The Z- line attached to actins is also pulled inwards. It causes a shortening (contraction) of
sarcomere.
 I-bands get shortened, whereas A-bands retain the length.
 Myosin releases ADP and Pi and goes back to its relaxed state. A new ATP binds and the
cross-bridge is broken.
 The ATP is again hydrolyzed by the myosin head and the above processes are repeated
causing further sliding.
 When Ca2+ ions are pumped back to sarcoplasmic cisternae, actin filaments are again masked.
As a result, Z-lines return to their original position. It results in relaxation.
The reaction time of the fibres varies in different muscles.
Repeated activation of muscles leads to the accumulation of the lactic acid causing muscle
fatigue. This is due to anaerobic breakdown of glycogen in muscles.
Red (Aerobic) muscles White muscle
Red coloured due to White coloured due to
 myoglobin lesser myoglobin
More mitochondria Less mitochondria
Aerobic metabolism Anaerobic metabolism
Slow & sustained Fast contraction for short
contraction period
HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
It consists of a framework of bones (206) & few cartilages.
Human skeletal system has 2 parts: axial & appendicular.
1. Axial skeletal system (80 bones)Includes bones of head, vertebral column, sternum,
ribs.
a. Bones of Head (29 bones)

⇒ Skull (22): Include cranial bones and facial bones.

It includes skull, Hyoid and Ear ossicles.

 Cranial bones (8): Include Frontal (1), Parietals (2), Temporals (2), Occipital (1), Sphenoid
(1) & Ethmoid (1).
 Facial bones (14): Include Nasals (2), Maxillae (2), Zygomatics (2), Lacrimals (2), Palatines
(2), Inferior nasals (2), Mandible (1) and Vomer (1).
Skull articulates with First vertebra (atlas) with the help of 2 occipital condyles (dicondylic

⇒ Hyoid bone (1): U-shaped bone seen below buccal cavity.

skull).

⇒ Ear ossicles (3 x 2 = 6): Malleus (2), Incus (2) & stapes (2).
b. Vertebral column
Formed of 26 vertebrae. It includes
 Cervical vertebrae (7)
 Thoracic vertebrae (12)
 Lumbar vertebrae (5)
 Sacral vertebrae (1-fused)
 Coccygeal vertebrae (1-fused)
Vertebra has a central hollow portion (neural canal) through which the spinal cord passes.
Number of cervical vertebrae are 7 in almost all mammals.
The vertebral column protects the spinal cord, supports the head and serves as the point of
attachment for the ribs and musculature of the back.
c. Sternum or Breast bone (1) Flat bone on the ventral midline of thorax.

⇒ True ribs (first 7 pairs):

d. Ribs (12 pairs)

They are attached to thoracic vertebrae and ventrally connected to sternum with the help

⇒ Vertebrochondral (false) ribs (8th, 9th & 10th pairs):

of Hyaline cartilage.

They do not articulate directly with the sternum but join the 7th rib with the help of Hyaline

⇒ Floating ribs (11th & 12th pairs):

cartilage.

They are not connected ventrally (no connection with sternum or other ribs).
Each rib has 2 articulation surfaces on its dorsal end and is hence called bicephalic.
2. Appendicular skeletal system (126 bones)
a. Bones of fore-limbs (30 x 2 = 60)
 Humerus (1)
 Radius (1)
 Ulna (1)
 Carpals (wrist bones-8)
 Metacarpals (palm bones-5)
 Phalanges (digits-14
b. Bones of hind-limbs (30 x 2 = 60)
 Femur (thigh bone- 1)
 Patella (knee cap- 1)
 Tibia (1)
 Fibula (1)
 Tarsals (ankle bones-7)
 Metatarsals (5)
 Phalanges (digits-14)
c. Pectoral girdles (2x2=4)
Include clavicle (2) & scapula (2).
Scapula (shoulder blade) is a large triangular flat bone situated in the dorsal part of the thorax
between the second and 7th ribs.
Scapula has a slightly elevated ridge (spine) which projects as a flat, expanded
process (acromion). The clavicle (collarbone) articulates with this.
Below the acromion is glenoid cavity which articulates with the head of humerus to form
the shoulder joint.
d. Pelvic girdles (2)
Formed of 2 coxal bones.
Each coxal bone is formed by the fusion of 3 bones- Ilium, Ischium & pubis.
At the point of fusion of Ilium, Ischium and Pubis is a cavity (Acetabulum) to which the thigh
bone articulates.
The 2 halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form pubic symphisis containing fibrous
cartilage.
JOINTS
Joints are points of contact between bones, or between bones and cartilages. 3 types:
1. Fibrous (immovable) joints: E.g. sutures b/w skull bones.
2. Cartilaginous joints (Slightly movable joints): Bones are joined together with the help of
cartilages. E.g. Joints between the adjacent vertebrae.
3. Synovial (movable) joints: They have a fluid filled synovial cavity between articulating
surfaces of 2 bones.
Types of synovial joint
Joint Examples
Ball & socket Shoulder joint & hip joints.
Hinge joint Knee joint, elbow joint, phalanges joints
Pivot joint Joints b/w atlas & axis.
Gliding
joint Joints b/w carpals
Joints b/w carpal & metacarpal of
Saddle joint thumb

DISORDERS OF MUSCULAR & SKELETAL SYSTEMS

 Myasthenia gravis: An auto immune disorder that affects neuromuscular junction. It leads to
fatigue, weakening and paralysis of skeletal muscles.
 Muscular dystrophy: Progressive degeneration of skeletal muscles. Mostly due to genetic
disorder.
 Tetany: Rapid muscle spasm due to low Ca2+ in body fluid.
 Arthritis: Inflammation of joints.
 Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder characterized by decreased bone mass and increased
chances of fractures. Decreased level of estrogen is a common cause.
 Gout: Inflammation of joints due to accumulation of uric acid crystals.