THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• The digestive system is a complex set of organs, glands, and ducts that work together to transform food into nutrients for cells.
• Food is taken into the digestive system, where it is broken down into smaller and smaller particles.
• Enzymes break the particles down into small molecules, which are absorbed into the blood and transported all over the body.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
1. Ingestion and mastication - Ingestion is the consumption of solid or liquid food. Mastication is chewing.
2. Propulsion and mixing - Propulsion is the movement of food from one end of the digestive tract to the other. Mixing is the movement of
food back and forth in the digestive tract to mix it with enzymes and facilitate absorption.
3. Digestion and secretion - the mechanical and chemical breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed.
Secretion is the addition of liquids, enzymes, and mucus to the ingested food.
4. Absorption - the movement of molecules out of the digestive tract and into the blood or lymphatic system.
5. Elimination - the removal of undigested material, such as fiber from food, plus other waste products from the body as feces.
ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• The digestive system consists of the digestive tract, plus specific associated organs.
• The digestive tract is also referred to as the GIT (gastrointestinal tract)
• The tract is one long tube from the mouth to the anus.
The digestive tract consists of the:
• oral cavity (mouth) • small intestines • pharynx • large intestines
• esophagus • anus • stomach
The digestive system includes some associated organs, not directly in the digestive tract, that have ducts that lead into the tract.
These associated organs are the:
• salivary glands • liver • gallbladder • pancreas
LAYERS OF DIGESTIVE TRACT WALL
The layers of the tract wall are also termed tunics.
1. Mucosa: • innermost layer • secretes mucus
2. Submucosa: • above mucosa • contains blood vessels, nerves, small glands
3. Muscularis: • above submucosa • longitudinal, circular, and oblique muscles
4. Serosa/adventitia: • outermost layer • If peritoneum is present called serosa • If no peritoneum then called adventitia
PERITONEUM AND MESSENTRIES
1. Visceral peritoneum - or serosa, is the serous membrane that covers the organs.
2. Parietal peritoneum - is the serous membrane that lines the wall of the abdominal cavity
3. Mesenteries - connective tissue sheets that hold organs in place in the abdominal cavity
4. Lesser omentum - mesentery connecting lesser curvature of stomach to liver and diaphragm
5. Greater omentum - mesentery connecting greater curvature of stomach to transverse colon and posterior body wall
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX, ESOPHAGUS
ORAL CAVTY
Lips - muscular structures, formed by the orbicularis oris muscle and covered by skin.
Cheeks - lateral walls of the oral cavity, within the cheeks are the buccinator muscles which flatten the cheeks against the teeth.
Tongue - large, muscular organ that occupies most of the oral cavity. The tongue moves food in the mouth and, in cooperation with the lips and
cheeks, holds the food in place during mastication.
TEETH
• 32 teeth in normal adult Incisors, canine, premolars, molars, wisdom
• 20 primary (deciduous) teeth Each tooth has crown, cup, neck, root
• The bulk of the tooth is formed by a cellular tissue called dentin In the crown of the tooth, the dentin is covered by an extremely hard,
acellular enamel.
• Center of tooth is pulp cavity filled with a material called pulp, which consists of blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue
• Teeth are held in place within pockets in the bone, called alveoli Dental caries (cavities) are breakdown of enamel by acids from bacteria.
PALATE, HARD PALATE, AND SOFT PALATE
• Palate: roof of oral cavity
• Hard palate: anterior part made of bone
• Soft palate: posterior part consists of skeletal muscle and connective tissue
SALIVARY GLANDS
Produce saliva which is a mixture of serous (watery) and mucous fluids.
• Keeps the oral cavity moist
• Needed for normal speech
• Dissolves food particles so they can be tasted
• Protects against bacteria and neutralizes pH
• Begins the process of digestion
Salivary Glands:
• Parotid - serous glands anterior to each ear.
• Submandibular - produce more serous than mucous secretions, found along the inferior border of the mandible.
• Sublingual - produce primarily mucous and lie below the mucous membrane in the floor of the oral cavity.
• Amylase - Digestive enzyme that breaks down carbohydrates
• Lysozyme - Enzymes that are active against bacteria
• Mucous portion contains mucin for lubrication
PHARYNX
• Throat
• Connects the mouth to the esophagus
It has three parts:
• nasopharynx- behind the nasal cavity
• oropharynx-(extend from the soft palate to the epiglottis)
• laryngopharynx- (extends from the epiglottis to the base of the larynx)
ESOPHAGUS
• Tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach • Transports food to the stomach • Joins stomach at cardiac opening
Heartburn: occurs when gastric juices regurgitate into the esophagus caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating or drinking in excess.
SWALLOWING
• Voluntary phase: bolus (mass of food formed in mouth and pushed into oropharynx
• Pharyngeal phase: swallowing reflex initiated when bolus stimulates receptors in oropharynx
• Esophageal phase: moves food from pharynx to stomach
• Peristalsis: wave-like contractions moves food through digestive tract
STOMACH
• Located in abdomen • Storage tank for food • Can hold up to 2 liters of food
• Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes
• Contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates and protects epithelial cells on stomach wall from acidic pH (3)
ANATOMY OF THE STOMACH
• The esophagus opens into the cardiac part.
• The fundus is to the left of, and superior to, the cardiac part.
• The body is largest part of the stomach.
• The body turns to the right, creating a greater curvature and a lesser curvature.
• The body narrows inferiorly to form the funnel-shaped pyloric part of the stomach.
Muscularis has 3 layers:
• outer longitudinal, middle circular, and inner oblique to produce churning action
Rugae: large folds that allow stomach to stretch
Chyme: paste-like substance that forms when food begins to be broken down
Pyloric opening: opening between stomach and small intestine
Pyloric sphincter: thick, ring of smooth muscle around pyloric opening which regulates movement of food into the small intestine
EPITHELIAL CELLS IN THE STOMACH
• Surface mucous cells - produce mucus that coats and protects the stomach
• mucous neck cells - produce mucus
• parietal cells - produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor
• endocrine cells - produce hormones and paracrine molecules
• chief cells - produce pepsinogen, a precursor of the protein-digesting enzyme pepsin
SECRETIONS OF THE STOMACH
Hydrochloric acid - Produces a pH of about 2.0 in the stomachKills microorganisms, activates pepsin.
Pepsin - breaks covalent bonds of proteins to form smaller peptides chains
Mucus - A thick layer, which lubricates the mucosa of the stomach Protects mucosa from acidic chyme and pepsin
Intrinsic factor
• Binds with vitamin B12 making it more readily absorbed by small intestine
• Vitamin B12 is important in DNA synthesis and red blood cell production
SMALL INTESTINE
• Measures 6 meters in length • Major absorptive organ of the gastrointestinal tract
• Chyme takes 3 to 5 hours to pass through • Contains enzymes to further breakdown food
• Contains secretions for protection against the acidity of chyme
ANATOMY OF SMALL INTESTINE
Duodenum: • first part • 25 cm long • contains absorptive cells, goblet cells, granular cells, endocrine cells
• contains microvilli and many folds• contains bile and pancreatic ducts
Jejunum:• second part • 2.5 meters long • Primary site of nutrient absorption
Ileum: • third part • 3.5 meters long
MUCOSA OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
The mucosa of the small intestine is simple columnar epithelium with four major cell types.
1. Absorptive cells, which have microvilli, produce digestive enzymes, and absorb digested food
2. Goblet cells, which produce a protective mucus
3. Granular cells, which may help protect the intestinal epithelium from bacteria; and
4. Endocrine cells, which produce regulatory hormones.
SECRETIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
Secretions of mucus, ions, and water lubricate and protect the intestinal wall from the acidic chyme and digestive enzymes.
The epithelial cells in the small intestine have enzymes bound to their free surfaces.
• Peptidases enzymatically breakdown proteins into amino acids for absorption.
• Disaccharidases enzymatically breakdown disaccharides into monosaccharides for absorption
LIVER AND PANCREAS
The liver consists of four lobes:
(1) the right lobe
(2) the left lobe
(3) the caudate lobe
(4) the quadrate lobe
HEPATIC LOBULES
Lobules: divisions of liver with portal triads at corners
Portal triad: contain branches of hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein, hepatic duct
Hepatic cords: between center margins of each lobule separated by hepatic sinusoids
Hepatic sinusoids: contain phagocytic cells that remove foreign particles from blood
Central vein: center of each lobule where mixed blood flows to form hepatic veins
Hepatic duct: transports bile out of liver
Common hepatic duct: formed from left and right hepatic duct
Cystic duct: joins common hepatic duct drains gallbladder
Common bile duct: formed from common hepatic duct and cystic duct
FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER
Digestion – Bile neutralizes stomach and acid emulsifies fats, which facilitates fat digestion.
Excretion-Bile contains excretory products, such as cholesterol, fats, and bile pigments (e.g, bilirubin), that result from hemoglobin breakdown.
Nutrient Storage-Liver cells remove sugar from the blood and store it in the form of glycogen; they also store fat, vitamins (A, B, D, E, and K),
copper, and iron
Nutrient Conversion
Liver cells convert some nutrients into others; for example, amino acids can be converted to lipids or glucose, fats can be converted to
phospholipids, and vitamin D is converted to its active form
Detoxification of harmful chemicals
Liver cells remove ammonia from the blood and convert it to urea, which is eliminated in the urine; other substances are detoxified and
secreted in the bile or excreted in the urine.
Synthesis of new molecules
The liver synthesizes blood proteins, such as albumin, fibrinogen, globulins, and clotting factors.
Bile is a complex solution that contains:
1. bile salts 2. bile pigments 3. cholesterol 4.lipids 5.lipid-soluble hormones 6. lecithin (a mixture of phospholipids).
PANCREAS
• Located posterior to stomach in inferior part of left upper quadrant
• Head near midline of body
• Tail extends to left and touches spleen
• Endocrine tissues have pancreatic islets that produce insulin and glucagon
• Exocrine tissues produce digestive enzymes that travel through ducts to duodenum
PANCREATIC SECRETION
The major protein-digesting enzymes are:
Trypsin - Pancreatic amylase continues the polysaccharide digestion that begins in the oral cavity.
Chymotrypsin - The pancreatic enzyme lipase is a lipid-digesting enzyme.
Carboxypeptidase -The pancreatic nuclease enzymes degrade DNA and RNA to their component nucleotides.
LARGE INTESTINE
ANATOMY OF THE LARGE INTESTINE
Function is to absorb water from indigestible food and create compact feces
Contains cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal Cecum:
• joins small intestine at ileocecal junction
• has appendix attached
Appendix:
• 9 cm structure that is often removed
Colon:
• 1.5 meters long
• contains ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid regions Rectum:
• straight tube that begins at sigmoid colon and ends at anal canal
Anal canal:
• last 2 to 3 cm of digestive tract Food takes 18 to 24 hours to pass through large intestine Feces are product of water, indigestible food, and
microbes Microbes synthesize vitamin K
CECUM
• is the proximal end of the large intestine where it joins the small intestine at ileocecal junction.
• has the appendix attached.
APPENDIX
• 9 cm structure that is often removed
Appendicitis - is an inflammation of the appendix that usually occurs because of an obstruction.
-The usual treatment is an appendectomy, surgical removal of the appendix
COLON
• 1.5-1.8 cm long and consists of four parts
• The mucosal lining of the colon contains numerous straight, tubular glands called crypts, which contain many mucus-producing goblet cells.
• The longitudinal smooth muscle layer of the colon does not completely envelop the intestinal wall but forms three bands called teniae coli.
RECTUM
• Straight tube that begins at sigmoid colon and ends at anal canal.
ANAL CANAL
• The last of the digestive tract that is 2-3 cm
• The smooth muscle layer of the anal canal is even thicker than that of the rectum and forms the internal anal sphincter at its superior end.
• The external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the anal canal is formed by skeletal muscle.
• The internal and external anal sphincter prevent defecation.
• Hemorrhoids are enlarged or inflamed rectal, or hemorrhoidal, veins that supply the anal canal.
DIGESTION, ABSORPTION, AND TRANSPORT
DIGESTION
-Is the process of breaking down food into molecules small enough to be absorbed into the blood. It involves:
Mechanical digestion: Reduces food particles in smaller size.
Chemical digestion: Uses enzymes to break chemical bonds, converting carbohydrates into monosaccharides, lipids into fatty acids and
monoglycerides, and proteins into amino acids.
ABSORPTION
-starts in the stomach with small, lipid-soluble molecules like alcohol and aspirin diffusing into the blood. Most absorption occurs in the
duodenum and jejunum, with some in the ileum. Molecules either diffuse through or are transported across the intestinal wall.
TRANSPORT
-Transport requires carrier molecules and includes facilitated diffusion, cotransport, and active transport. Cotransport and active transport
require energy to move the transported molecules across the intestinal wall.
CARBOHYDRATES
• Salivary amylase starts carbohydrate digestion in the mouth. The process continues in the stomach but is halted by acid that inactivates
salivary amylase.
• The final step in carbohydrate digestion is performed by disaccharidases, enzymes on the intestinal epithelium that convert disaccharides
into monosaccharides like glucose.
• Monosaccharides-glucose, galactose, and fructose-are absorbed by intestinal epithelial cells Glucose and galactose are absorbed through
cotransport, where the sodium-potassium pump creates a Na+ gradient that drives their uptake via secondary active transport. Fructose is
absorbed through facilitated diffusion using a different
carrier molecule.
LIPIDS
• Lipids are largely insoluble in water and include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and fat-soluble vitamins. Triglycerides (fats) consist
of three fatty acids bound to glycerol. Saturated fats have single carbon bonds, are solid at room temperature, and are found in meat, dairy,
and certain oils like coconut and palm oil.
Unsaturated fats have double carbon bonds, are liquid at room temperature, and are found in fish and most plant oils.
• Lipase, secreted by the pancreas, digests triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides. However, lipase alone is not efficient;
emulsification by bile salts is crucial. Bile salts break down large lipid droplets into smaller ones, increasing their surface area for more effective
digestion by lipases.
LIPOPROTEINS
• Lipids are packaged into lipoproteins to allow transport in the lymph and blood.
• Lipoproteins are molecules that are part water soluble and part lipid soluble.
• Since lymph and blood contain water and lipids are not water soluble, lipoproteins are necessary for transport.
PROTEIN DIGESTION
• Pepsin is a protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the stomach.
• In the small intestines these enzymes are activated.
• In the small intestine, other enzymes termed peptidases, bound to the microvilli of the intestinal epithelium further break down small
peptides into tripeptides.
• Absorption of tripeptides, dipeptides, or individual amino acids occurs through the intestinal epithelial cells by various cotransport
mechanisms.
WATER AND MINERALS
• Water can move across the intestinal wall in either direction
• The movement depends on osmotic pressures
• 99% of water entering intestine is absorbed
• Minerals are actively transported across wall of small
intestine
EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• With age, the mucosa heals more slowly, and the liver's ability to detoxify chemicals and store glycogen declines. These factors make
elderly individuals more susceptible to infections, ulcers, and cancers of the digestive tract, such as colorectal cancer.
• Gastroesophageal reflux disorder (GERD) becomes more common, often leading to increased use of antacids and acid inhibitors.
Age-related conditions like hiatal hernia and reduced esophageal motility are worsened by declining digestive motility.
• Dental health also declines with age. Thinning enamel and receding gums expose dentin, leading to pain and altered eating habits. Tooth
loss is common, and weaker chewing muscles result in less thorough mastication before swallowing.
CONDITIONS
Peptic Ulcer-Lesions in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, usually due to infection by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, stress, diet,
smoking, or alcohol may be predisposing factors; antibiotic therapy is used.
Cirrhosis (sih-ROH-sis)- Characterized by damage to and death of hepatic cells, replaced by connective tissue; results in loss of normal liver
function and interference with blood flow; commonly caused by alcoholism.
Hepatitis (hep-ah-TYE-tis)- Inflammation of the liver that causes liver cell death and scar tissue; if not corrected, it results in loss of liver
function.
Hepatitis B- Serum hepatitis, transmitted through blood or body fluids, including sexual contact or contaminated needles; may lead to cirrhosis
or liver cancer.
Hepatitis C- Often leads to cirrhosis and possibly liver cancer.
Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)- Localized inflammatory degeneration that may occur anywhere along the digestive tract but mostly affects
the distal ileum and proximal colon. Symptoms include diarrhea, pain, fatigue, and weight loss.
Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)- Disorder of unknown cause marked by alternating constipation and diarrhea. It may be linked to stress or
depression and has a familial tendency.
Gluten Enteropathy (Celiac Disease)- Malabsorption in the small intestine due to gluten sensitivity. The immune reaction damages the
intestinal lining, reducing absorption of nutrients.
INFECTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
Food poisoning - Caused by ingesting bacteria or toxins, suchanel, or chechia reus,symptoms include nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, and
diarrhea; in severe cases, death can occur
Giardiasis (jee-ar-DYEa-sis) - Caused by a protozoan, Giardia lamblia, that invades the intestine; symptoms include nausea, abdominal cramps,
weakness, weight loss, and malaise; bacteria are transmitted in the feces of humans and other animals, often by drinking from contaminated
wilderness streams
Intestinal parasites - Common under conditions of poor sanitation; parasites include tapeworms, pinworms, hookworms, and roundworms
Dysentery(DIS-en-tairee) - Severe form of diarrhea with blood or mucus in the feces; can be caused by bacteria, protozoa, or amoebae
G. RIVAS
