Lecture 2

Vector Analysis

Jang, Min Seok

EE204 Fall 2021

Maxwell’s Equations
Differential form Integral form

𝛻 ⋅ 𝐃 = 𝜌𝑓 ර 𝐃 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 = න 𝜌𝑓 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑣

𝛻⋅𝐁=0 ර 𝐁 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 = 0
𝑆
𝜕𝐁 𝜕
𝛻×𝐄=− ර 𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 = − න 𝐁 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒
𝜕𝑡 𝐿 𝜕𝑡 𝑆
𝜕𝐃 𝜕𝐃
𝛻 × 𝐇 = 𝐉𝑓 + ර 𝐇 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 = න 𝐉𝑓 + ⋅ 𝑑𝐒
𝜕𝑡 𝐿 𝑆 𝜕𝑡
𝐃 = electric flux density 𝐁 = magnetic flux density
𝐄 = electric field 𝐇 = magnetic field
𝜌𝑓 = free charge density 𝐉𝑓 = free current density

Vector analysis is a mathematical language for EM theory

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 2
Mathematical Concepts
• Scalar and vector

• Vector algebra: addition, subtraction, and multiplications

• Vector differential operations

(gradient, divergence, curl, and Laplacian)

• Line, surface and volume integrals

• Divergence theorem and Stokes’ theorem

• Coordinate systems (Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical) and

coordinate transformations

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 3

Scalars and Vectors
• A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude
(ex) length, area, volume, speed, mass, density, pressure,
temperature, energy, entropy, work, power

volume

• A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and

direction
(ex) displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force

velocity

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 4

Fields
• A field is a physical quantity that has a value for each point in
space (and time)

Examples of scalar field: Examples of vector field:

- temperature distribution - gravitational force
- charge density profile - wind flow distribution
- electric potential - electric/magnetic fields
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 5
Standard Basis
• Standard basis {𝐚𝑥 , 𝐚𝑦 , 𝐚𝑧 }: a set of unit vectors (i.e. 𝐚𝑖 = 1)
pointing in the 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 axes of Cartesian coordinate system
• Every vector 𝐀 in 3D space can be represented uniquely as

𝐀 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐚𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐚𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐚𝑧

𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 : components of 𝐀 in the 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 directions

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 6

 Vector Addition and Subtraction
• Addition: 𝐂=𝐀+𝐁
= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 𝐚𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 𝐚𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 𝐚𝑧

• Subtraction: 𝐃 = 𝐀 − 𝐁 = 𝐀 + (−𝐁)
= 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 𝐚𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 𝐚𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 − 𝐵𝑧 𝐚𝑧

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 7

 Vector Addition and Subtraction

• Basic algebra:

Addition Multiplication

commutative 𝐀+𝐁=𝐁+𝐀 𝑘𝐀 = 𝐀𝑘

associative 𝐀+ 𝐁+𝐂 = 𝐀+𝐁 +𝐂 𝑘 𝑙𝐀 = 𝑘𝑙 𝐀

distributive 𝑘 𝐀 + 𝐁 = 𝑘𝐀 + 𝑘𝐁

𝐀, 𝐁, 𝐂: vectors, 𝑘, 𝑙: scalars

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 8

Vector Addition and Subtraction
• Exercise: Given points 𝑄(2,4,6) and 𝑅 0,3,8 , find
(a) the position vectors of 𝑄 (𝐫𝑄 ), and 𝑅(𝐫𝑅 ).
(b) 𝐫𝑄 + 𝐫𝑅
(c) the displacement vector 𝐫𝑄𝑅
(d) the distance between 𝑄 and 𝑅

Answer:
(a) 𝐫𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄 = 2𝐚𝑥 + 4𝐚𝑦 + 6𝐚𝑧 , 𝐫𝑅 = 𝑂𝑅 = 3𝐚𝑦 + 8𝐚𝑧
(b) 𝐫𝑄 + 𝐫𝑅 = 2 + 0 𝐚𝑥 + 4 + 3 𝐚𝑦 + 6 + 8 𝐚𝑧
= 2𝐚𝑥 + 7𝐚𝑦 + 14𝐚𝑧
(c) 𝐫𝑄𝑅 = 𝑄𝑅 = 𝐫𝑅 − 𝐫𝑄 = 0 − 2 𝐚𝑥 + 3 − 4 𝐚𝑦 + 8 − 6 𝐚𝑧
= −2𝐚𝑥 − 𝐚𝑦 + 2𝐚𝑧
(d) 𝐫𝑄𝑅 = −2 2 + −1 2 + 2 2 =3

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 9

Vector Multiplication: Scalar Product
• Scalar product (dot product):

𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧

𝐴 = 𝐀 , 𝐵 = 𝐁 , 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = smaller angle between 𝐀 and 𝐁.

• Scalar projection (or component) of 𝐀 in the direction of 𝐁:

𝐁
𝐀 ⋅ 𝐚𝐵 = 𝐀 ⋅ = 𝐴 cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵
𝐵

• Basic algebra:
commutative 𝐀⋅𝐁=𝐁⋅𝐀
distributive 𝐀⋅ 𝐁+𝐂 =𝐀⋅𝐁+𝐀⋅𝐂
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 10
Vector Multiplication: Scalar Product
• Usage in Physics: work(𝑊), force(𝐅), and displacement (𝐒)

𝑊 =𝐅⋅𝐒

𝑊=0
• Exercise: application to the law of cosines:
𝑐= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜃
Answer: 𝑐 2 = 𝐜 ⋅ 𝐜 = 𝐚 − 𝐛 ⋅ 𝐚 − 𝐛
=𝐚⋅𝐚−𝐚⋅𝐛−𝐛⋅𝐚+𝐛⋅𝐛
= 𝑎2 − 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 − 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 + 𝑏 2
= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛
= 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜃
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 11
Vector Multiplication: Vector Product
• Vector product (cross product):

𝐚𝑥 𝐚𝑦 𝐚𝑧
𝐀 × 𝐁 = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 𝐚𝑛 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧

Direction: 𝐚𝑛 is a unit vector normal to both 𝐀 and 𝐁.

Magnitude: area of the parallelogram having 𝐀 and 𝐁 as sides.

• Basic algebra:
anticommutative 𝐀 × 𝐁 = −𝐁 × 𝐀
not associative 𝐀× 𝐁×𝐂 ≠ 𝐀×𝐁 ×𝐂
distributive 𝐀× 𝐁+𝐂 =𝐀×𝐁+𝐀×𝐂
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 12
Vector Multiplication: Vector Product
• Usage in Physics: Lorentz force (𝐅) on a moving charge (𝑞) with
velocity (𝐯) under magnetic flux density (𝐁)

𝐅 = 𝑞𝐯 × 𝐁

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 13

Vector Multiplication: Triple Products
• Scalar triple product:

𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁 × 𝐂 = 𝐁 ⋅ 𝐂 × 𝐀 = 𝐂 ⋅ (𝐀 × 𝐁)

• Geometrical interpretation of scalar triple product:

Volume of parallelepiped having 𝐀, 𝐁, and 𝐂 as edges

• Vector triple product (BAC-CAB rule):

𝐀 × 𝐁 × 𝐂 = 𝐁 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐂 − 𝐂(𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁)

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 14

Vector Multiplication
• Exercise: Let 𝐏 = 2𝐚𝑥 − 𝐚𝑧 and 𝐐 = 2𝐚𝑥 − 𝐚𝑦 + 2𝐚𝑧 . Determine
(a) scalar projection of 𝐏 along 𝐐
(b) area of the triangle having 𝐏 and 𝐐 as sides
(c) unit vector perpendicular to both 𝐏 and 𝐐
Answer:
𝐐 2 ⋅ 2 + 0 ⋅ −1 + −1 ⋅ 2 2
(a) 𝐏 ⋅ = =
𝐐 2 2
2 + −1 + 2 2 3

𝐚𝑥 𝐚𝑦 𝐚 𝑧
(b) 𝐏 × 𝐐 = 2 0 −1 = −𝐚𝑥 − 6𝐚𝑦 − 2𝐚𝑧 ,
2 −1 2
Area = 𝐏 × 𝐐 /2 = (−1)2 + (−6)2 + −2 2 /2 = 41/2
𝐏×𝐐 1
(c) ± =± (𝐚𝑥 + 6𝐚𝑦 + 2𝐚𝑧 )
𝐏×𝐐 41
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 15
Ordinary Derivatives
• A function of one variable: 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑓
• Ordinary derivative:
𝑑𝑥
• Geometrical interpretation: slope of the graph of 𝑓 vs 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥)

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 16

Del Operator: ∇
• Del operator is the vector differential operator

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻= 𝐚𝑥 + 𝐚𝑦 + 𝐚𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• Three ways the operator 𝛻 can act:

1. On a scalar or vector field 𝑉: 𝛻𝑉 (gradient)
2. On a vector field 𝐀 via the dot product: 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 (divergence)
3. On a vector field 𝐀 via the cross product: 𝛻 × 𝐀 (curl)

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 17

Gradient
• Motivation:
How to define slope of a multi-variable function?

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 18

Gradient
• A scalar field defined in three dimensional space: 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
• Gradient: 𝛻𝑉 = 𝐚𝑥 + 𝐚𝑦 + 𝐚𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• Geometrical interpretation:
Direction: direction of the maximum increase of 𝑉
Magnitude: maximum slope (rate of increase) of 𝑉

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 19

Gradient
• Usage in Physics: relation between a force field (𝐅) and a scalar
potential field (𝑈)
(ex) gravitational and electrostatic fields

𝐅 = −𝛻𝑈

Why minus sign? Because water flows downhill rather than uphill

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 20

Gradient
• Exercise: Let 𝑉 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 . Find
(a) gradient of 𝑉
(b) maximum directional derivative at point 𝑃(2,1,2)
(c) directional derivative at 𝑃 toward the origin
Answer:
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
(a) 𝛻𝑉 = 𝐚𝑥 + 𝐚𝑦 + 𝐚𝑧 = 2𝑥 − 2 𝐚𝑥 + 2𝑦 𝐚𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

(b) 𝛻𝑉 = 2⋅2−2 2 + 2⋅1 2 =2 2

(c) 𝑃𝑂 = −2𝐚𝑥 − 1𝐚𝑦 − 2𝐚𝑍

𝑃𝑂 −2, −1, −2
𝛻𝑉 ⋅ = 2,2,0 ⋅ = −2
𝑃𝑂 3

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 21

Divergence and Curl

• Motivation:
How to describe generation and rotation of a vector field?

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 22

Divergence
• A vector field defined in three dimensional space: 𝐀(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

• Cartesian coordinate:

𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧

𝛻⋅𝐀= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• Coordinate independent definition:

‫𝐒𝑑 ⋅ 𝐀 𝑆ׯ‬
𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 = lim
Δ𝑣→0 Δ𝑣

Δ𝑣 is the small volume enclosed by the closed surface 𝑆 in which

the point of interest 𝑃 is located

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 23

 Divergence (Optional)
Let 𝑃 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )

ර 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 = න +න +න +න +න +න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒
𝑆 front back left right top bottom

න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 ≈ 𝐴𝑥 ቚ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 (𝑑𝐒 = 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝐚𝑥 )

𝑥0 + ,𝑦 ,𝑧
front 2 0 0

න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 ≈ −𝐴𝑥 ቚ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑥0 − ,𝑦 ,𝑧
back 2 0 0

𝜕𝐴𝑥
න +න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 ≈ 𝐴𝑥 ቚ 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 ቚ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
front back 𝑥0 + ,𝑦 ,𝑧
2 0 0
𝑥0 − ,𝑦 ,𝑧
2 0 0
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
Similarly, න +න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 ≈
𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧, න +න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 ≈
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
left right top bottom

‫𝐒𝑑 ⋅ 𝐀 𝑆ׯ‬ 1 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧

Therefore, lim = + + 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = + +
Δ𝑣→0 Δ𝑣 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 24

Divergence

‫𝐒𝑑 ⋅ 𝐀 𝑆ׯ‬
𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 = lim
Δ𝑣→0 Δ𝑣
• Geometrical interpretation:
𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 at a point 𝑃 is a measure of how much the vector 𝐀
spreads out (diverges) from 𝑃

𝛻⋅𝐀>0 𝛻⋅𝐀<0 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 = 0 (solenoidal)

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 25
Divergence
• Usage in Physics: relation between gravitational field (𝐠) and its
source (mass density, 𝜌𝑚 )

𝛻 ⋅ 𝐠 = −4𝜋𝐺𝜌𝑚

Similarly, electric field (𝐄) and its source (charge density, 𝜌)

𝜌
𝛻⋅𝐄=
𝜖0

𝜌>0 𝜌<0
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 26
Curl
• A vector field defined in three dimensional space: 𝐀(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

• Cartesian coordinate:
𝐚𝑥 𝐚𝑦 𝐚𝑧
𝛻 × 𝐀 = 𝜕/𝜕𝑥 𝜕/𝜕𝑦 𝜕/𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

• Coordinate independent definition:

‫𝐥𝑑 ⋅ 𝐀 𝐿ׯ‬
𝛻 × 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐚𝑛 = lim
Δ𝑆→0 Δ𝑆

Δ𝑆 is the small area bounded by the closed curve 𝐿 and 𝐚𝑛 is the

unit vector normal to Δ𝑆 determined by using the right-hand rule.
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 27
 Curl (Optional)
Let 𝑃 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and 𝐚𝑛 = 𝐚𝑥 (i.e. 𝛥𝑆 on 𝑦𝑧 plane)

ර 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 = න + න + න + න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥
𝐿 𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑑 𝑑𝑎

න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 ≈ 𝐴𝑦 ቚ 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 (𝑑𝐥 = 𝑑𝑦 𝐚𝑦 )
𝑎𝑏 𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ,𝑧0 −
2

න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 ≈ −𝐴𝑦 ቚ 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
𝑐𝑑 𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ,𝑧0 +
2

𝜕𝐴𝑦
න +න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 ≈ 𝐴𝑦 ቚ 𝑑𝑧 − 𝐴𝑦 ቚ 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑑 𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ,𝑧0 −
2
𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ,𝑧0 +
2
𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝐴𝑧
Similarly, න +න 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 ≈
𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧,
𝑏𝑐 𝑑𝑎
𝐚𝑥 𝐚𝑦 𝐚𝑧
‫𝐥𝑑 ⋅ 𝐀 𝐿ׯ‬ 1 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Therefore, lim
Δ𝑆→0 Δ𝑆
=
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑦
−
𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 =
𝜕𝑦
−
𝜕𝑧
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
⋅ 𝐚𝑥
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 28

Curl
‫𝐥𝑑 ⋅ 𝐀 𝐿ׯ‬
𝛻 × 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐚𝑛 = lim
Δ𝑆→0 Δ𝑆
• Geometrical interpretation:
𝛻 × 𝐀 at a point 𝑃 is a measure of how much the vector 𝐀 curls
around 𝑃 (Direction: perpendicular to the plane of circulation)

𝛻⋅𝐀=0 𝛻⋅𝐀≠0 𝛻⋅𝐀=0 𝛻⋅𝐀≠0

𝛻×𝐀=0 𝛻×𝐀=0 𝛻×𝐀≠0 𝛻×𝐀≠0
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 29
Curl
• Usage in Physics: relation between magnetic flux density (𝐁) and
vector potential field (𝐀)

𝐁=𝛻×𝐀

Relation between a magnetic flux density (𝐁) and its source

(current density 𝐉)
𝛻 × 𝐁 = 𝜇0 𝐉

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 30

Divergence and Curl
• Exercise: Find the divergence and the curl of the following vector
fields:
(a) 𝐀1 = 3𝐚𝑥 (b) 𝐀 2 = 𝑥𝐚𝑥 + 𝑦𝐚𝑦 (c) 𝐀 3 = −𝑦𝐚𝑥 + 𝑥𝐚𝑦

Answer: (a) 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐴1 = 0, 𝛻 × 𝐴1 = 0
(b) 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐴2 = 2, 𝛻 × 𝐴2 = 0
(c) 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐴3 = 0, 𝛻 × 𝐴3 = 2𝐚𝑧

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 31

Laplacian
• Laplacian of a scalar field: 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧

𝜕 2𝑉 𝜕 2𝑉 𝜕 2𝑉
𝛻 2 𝑉 = 𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝑉 = 2 + 2 + 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

• Laplacian of a vector field: 𝐀 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧

𝛻 2 𝐀 = 𝛻 2 𝐴𝑥 𝐚𝑥 + 𝛻 2 𝐴𝑦 𝐚𝑦 + 𝛻 2 𝐴𝑧 𝐚𝑧

• Usage in Physics: relation between electric potential field (𝑉)

and its source (charge density 𝜌)

2
𝜌
𝛻 𝑉 = 𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝑉 = −𝛻 ⋅ 𝐄 = −
𝜖0

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 32

Divergence Theorem
• Divergence theorem:

ර 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 = න 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑣

Total outward flux of 𝐀 through a closed surface 𝑆 is equal to the

volume integral of 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 over the volume 𝑣 enclosed by 𝑆
• Proof: Subdivide volume 𝑣 into arbitrarily large number of
tiny cubes. For each cube
෍ 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 = 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀𝑑𝑣
six surfaces
𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 terms cancel (pairwise) for all interior faces and
only the contribution of the exterior surfaces survive.

෍ 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 = ෍ 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀𝑑𝑣 ↔ ර 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 = න 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 𝑑𝑣
exterior volumes 𝑆 𝑣
surfaces
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 33
Stokes’ Theorem
• Stokes’ theorem:

ර 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 = න 𝛻 × 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒
𝐿 𝑆

Circulation of 𝐀 around a closed path 𝐿 is equal to the surface

integral of 𝛻 × 𝐀 over the surface 𝑆 bounded by 𝐿.
• Proof: Subdivide area 𝑆 into arbitrarily large number of
tiny rectangles. For each rectangle
෍ 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 = 𝛻 × 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒
four sides

𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 terms cancel for all interior line segments and only

the contribution of the exterior line segments survive.
෍ 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 = ෍ 𝛻 × 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 ↔ ර 𝐀 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 = න (𝛻 × 𝐀) ⋅ 𝑑𝐒
exterior line rectangles 𝐿 𝑆
segments
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 34
Divergence and Stokes’ Theorem
• Usage in Physics: relation between differential and integral forms
of Maxwell’s equations
Divergence theorem:

𝛻 ⋅ 𝐃 = 𝜌𝑓 ර 𝐃 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 = න 𝜌𝑓 𝑑𝑣
𝑆 𝑣

𝛻⋅𝐁=0 ර 𝐁 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒 = 0
𝑆

Stokes’ theorem:
𝜕𝐁 𝜕
𝛻×𝐄=− ර 𝐄 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 = − න 𝐁 ⋅ 𝑑𝐒
𝜕𝑡 𝐿 𝜕𝑡 𝑆
𝜕𝐃 𝜕𝐃
𝛻 × 𝐇 = 𝐉𝑓 + ර 𝐇 ⋅ 𝑑𝐥 = න 𝐉𝑓 + ⋅ 𝑑𝐒
𝜕𝑡 𝐿 𝑆 𝜕𝑡

Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 35

Classification of Vector Fields

M. C. Escher Non-conservative?
• Irrotational: 𝛻 × 𝐀 = 0, ‫ = 𝐥𝑑 ⋅ 𝐀 𝐿ׯ‬0, 𝐀 = −𝛻𝑉 (𝑉: scalar potential)
• Solenoidal: 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 = 0, ‫ = 𝐒𝑑 ⋅ 𝐀 𝑆ׯ‬0, 𝐀 = 𝛻 × 𝐅 (𝐅: vector potential)
• Helmholtz theorem: Any sufficiently smooth and rapidly decaying vector
field 𝐀 can be decomposed into the sum of an irrotational vector field and
a solenoidal vector field.
𝐀 = −𝛻𝑉 + 𝛻 × 𝐅
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 36
Useful Vector Identities
• 𝐀 and 𝐁 are vector fields and 𝑈 and 𝑉 are scalar fields
𝛻 𝑈 + 𝑉 = 𝛻𝑈 + 𝛻𝑉
𝛻⋅ 𝐀+𝐁 =𝛻⋅𝐀+𝛻⋅𝐁
𝛻× 𝐀+𝐁 =𝛻×𝐀+𝛻×𝐁
𝛻 𝑈𝑉 = 𝑈𝛻𝑉 + 𝑉𝛻𝑈
𝛻 ⋅ 𝑉𝐀 = 𝑉𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 + 𝐀 ⋅ 𝛻𝑉
𝛻 × 𝑉𝐀 = 𝑉 𝛻 × 𝐀 + 𝛻𝑉 × 𝐀
𝛻 𝐀 ⋅ 𝐁 = 𝐀 ⋅ 𝛻 𝐁 + 𝐁 ⋅ 𝛻 𝐀 + 𝐀 × 𝛻 × 𝐁 + 𝐁 × (𝛻 × 𝐀)
𝛻⋅ 𝐀×𝐁 =𝐁⋅ 𝛻×𝐀 −𝐀⋅ 𝛻×𝐁
𝛻× 𝐀×𝐁 =𝐀 𝛻⋅𝐁 −𝐁 𝛻⋅𝐀 + 𝐁⋅𝛻 𝐀− 𝐀⋅𝛻 𝐁

𝛻 ⋅ 𝛻𝑉 = 𝛻 2 𝑉
𝛻 × 𝛻𝑉 = 0
𝛻⋅ 𝛻×𝐀 =0
𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐀 = 𝛻 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐀 − 𝛻2𝐀
Jang, Min Seok | EE204 Electromagnetics I 37