Haliç University

Faculty of Engineering

EEE213

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

Lecture-5: ’’ Direct Current (D.C.) Circuits’’

Lecturer: Asst.Prof. Zehra Merve Cinan

 Topics
• Kirchhoff‘s Laws
 The Potential Divider
 The Current Divider
• The Wheatstone Bridge
• Thévenin’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem
• C-R Circuits
 Charging
 Discharge
 Waveshaping with C-R Networks
• L-R Circuits

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 2

 Kirchhoff‘s Laws

Kirchhoff’s Laws relate to the sum

of currents at a junction (or node) or
voltages in a network (or mesh). This
sentence simply indicates that the
polarity of each current or voltage drop
must be taken into account by giving it an
appropriate sign, either positive (+) or
negative (–).

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 3

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 4
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the sum of the currents present at a
junction (node) in a circuit is zero (see figure).

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 5

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the sum of the potential drops in a
closed network (or ‘mesh’) is zero (see figure).

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 6

Example: In the figure, use Kirchhoff’s Current Law to determine:
(a) the value of current flowing between A and B.
(b) the value of 𝑰𝟑 .

Solution:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 7

Example: In the figure, use Kirchhoff’s Current Law to determine:
(a) the value of current flowing between A and B.
(b) the value of 𝑰𝟑 .

Solution:

(a) 𝑰𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐 both flow towards Node A so, applying our polarity convention, they must both be positive. Now,
assuming that current 𝑰𝟓 flows between A and B and that this current flows away from the junction (obvious
because 𝑰𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐 both flow towards the junction) we arrive at the following Kirchhoff’s Current Law equation:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 8

Solution:

(a) 𝑰𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐 both flow towards Node A so, applying our polarity
convention, they must both be positive. Now, assuming that current
𝑰𝟓 flows between A and B and that this current flows away from the
junction (obvious because 𝑰𝟏 and 𝑰𝟐 both flow towards the junction)
we arrive at the following Kirchhoff’s Current Law equation:

(b) Moving to Node B, let’s assume that 𝑰𝟑 flows outwards so we can say that:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 9

Example: In the figure, use Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to determine:
(a) the value of 𝑽𝟐 .
(b) the value of 𝑬𝟑 .

Solution:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 10

Example: In the figure, use Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to determine:
(a) the value of 𝑽𝟐 .
(b) the value of 𝑬𝟑 .

Solution:

(a) In Loop A, and using the conventions shown in the figure, we can
write down the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law equations:

(b) Similarly, in Loop B we can say that:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 11

Example: Determine the currents and voltages in the circuit of figure.

Solution:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 12

Solution:
In order to solve the circuit shown in the figure, it is
first necessary to mark the currents and voltages on
the circuit, as shown in figures (a) and (b).

Figure (a)

Figure (b)
EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 13
Solution: Figure (a) Figure (b)

Using the Ohm’s Law equations:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 14

 The Potential Divider

The potential divider circuit (see figure) is commonly used to

reduce voltages in a circuit. The output voltage produced by the
circuit is given by:

It is, however, important to note that the output voltage (𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) will fall when current is drawn from
the arrangement.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 15

 The figure shows the effect of loading the potential divider circuit. In the loaded potential divider in
this figure, the output voltage is given by:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 16

 The Current Divider

The current divider circuit (see figure) is used to divert a known

proportion of the current flowing in a circuit. The output current
produced by the circuit is given by:

It is, however, important to note that the output current (𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) will fall when the load connected to
the output terminals has any appreciable resistance.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 17

Example: The potential divider shown in the figure is used as a simple voltage
calibrator. Determine the output voltage produced by the circuit:
(a) when the output terminals are left open-circuit (i.e. when no load is connected)
(b) when the output is loaded by a resistance of 10 𝑘Ω.

Solution:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 18

Example: The potential divider shown in the figure is used as a simple voltage
calibrator. Determine the output voltage produced by the circuit:
(a) when the output terminals are left open-circuit (i.e. when no load is connected)
(b) when the output is loaded by a resistance of 10 𝑘Ω.

Solution:

(a) In the first case we can simply apply the formula:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 19

Solution:

(a) In the first case we can simply apply the formula:

(b) In the second case, we need to take into account the effect of the 10 𝑘Ω resistor connected to the output
terminals of the potential divider. Firstly, we need to find the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination
of 𝑹𝟐 and 𝑹𝑳 :

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 20

 The Wheatstone Bridge

Wheatstone Bridge, also known as the resistance

bridge, calculates the unknown resistance by
balancing the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises
two known resistors, one unknown resistor, and one
variable resistor connected in the form of a bridge.
The voltage developed between A and B will be
zero when the voltage between A and Y is the same
as that between B and Y. In effect, 𝑹𝟏 and 𝑹𝟐
constitute a potential divider, as do 𝑹𝟑 and 𝑹𝟒 .
Basic Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 21

 The bridge will be balanced (and 𝑽𝑨𝑩 = 𝟎 )
when the ratio of 𝑹𝟏 : 𝑹𝟐 is the same as the ratio
𝑹𝟑 : 𝑹𝟒 . Hence, at balance:

Basic Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 22

 A practical form of the Wheatstone bridge that can be
used for measuring unknown resistances is shown in the
figure. In this practical form of the Wheatstone bridge, 𝑹𝟏
and 𝑹𝟐 are called the ratio arms while one arm
(represented by 𝑹𝟑 in the previous figure) is replaced by a
calibrated variable resistor. The unknown resistor, 𝑹𝑿 , is
connected in the fourth arm. At balance:

or

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 23

Example: In a bridge circuit, the resistances are 𝑅1 = 50 , 𝑅2 = 10 , 𝑅3 = 20 . Calculate the value of the
unknown resistance 𝑅𝑋 .

Solution:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 24

Example: In a bridge circuit, the resistances are 𝑅1 = 50 , 𝑅2 = 10 , 𝑅3 = 20 . Calculate the value of the
unknown resistance 𝑅𝑋 .

Solution:

𝑅1 𝑅3 50  20 
= = ↔ 𝑅𝑋 = 4 
𝑅2 𝑅𝑋 10  𝑅𝑋

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 25

Example: For the Wheatstone bridge circuit of figure, solve
the following problems:
(a) If 𝑅1 = 1 , 𝑅2 = 2 , and 𝑅𝑋 = 3 , to what value
should 𝑅3 be adjusted so as to achieve a balanced condition?
(b) If 𝑉0 = 6 𝑉, 𝑅𝑎 = 0.1 , and 𝑅𝑋 were then to deviate by
a small amount to 𝑅𝑋 = 3.01 , what would be the reading
on the ampermeter?

Solution:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 26

(a) If 𝑅1 = 1 , 𝑅2 = 2 , and 𝑅𝑋 = 3 , to what value
should 𝑅3 be adjusted so as to achieve a balanced condition?

Solution:

(a)

𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 × 𝑅𝑋 1 × 3
= ↔ 𝑅3 = = = 1.5 
𝑅3 𝑅𝑋 𝑅2 2

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 27

(b) If 𝑉0 = 6 𝑉, 𝑅𝑎 = 0.1 , and 𝑅𝑋 were then to deviate by
a small amount to 𝑅𝑋 = 3.01 , what would be the reading
on the ampermeter?

Solution:

(b) From Kirchhoff’s Laws;

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 28

 Thévenin’s Theorem

Thévenin’s Theorem allows us to replace a

complicated network of resistances and voltage
sources with a simple equivalent circuit comprising a
single voltage source connected in series with a
single resistance (see the figure).
The single voltage source in the Thévenin
equivalent circuit, 𝑽𝑶𝑪 , is simply the voltage that
appears between the terminals when nothing is
connected to it. In other words, it is the open-circuit
Thévenin equivalent circuit
voltage that would appear between A and B.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 29

 Thévenin equivalent circuit

The single resistance that appears in the Thévenin equivalent circuit, 𝑹, is the resistance that would
be seen looking into the network between A and B when all of the voltage sources (assumed perfect) are
replaced by short-circuit connections. Note that if the voltage sources are not perfect (i.e. if they have
some internal resistance) the equivalent circuit must be constructed on the basis that each voltage source is
replaced by its own internal resistance.
Once we have values for 𝑽𝑶𝑪 and 𝑹, we can determine how the network will behave when it is
connected to a load (i.e. when a resistor is connected across the terminals A and B).

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 30

 Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s Theorem provides an alternative method of

reducing a complex network to a simple equivalent circuit.
Unlike Thévenin’s Theorem, Norton’s Theorem
makes use of a current source rather than a voltage source.
The Norton equivalent circuit allows us to replace a
complicated network of resistances and voltage sources
with a simple equivalent circuit comprising a single
Norton’s equivalent circuit
constant current source connected in parallel with a single
resistance (see the figure).

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 31

 The constant current source in the Norton equivalent
circuit, 𝑰𝑺𝑪 , is simply the short-circuit current that would flow if
A and B were to be linked directly together. The resistance that
appears in the Norton equivalent circuit, 𝑹, is the resistance that
would be seen looking into the network between A and B when
all of the voltage sources are replaced by short-circuit
connections. Once again, it is worth noting that if the voltage
sources have any appreciable internal resistance, the equivalent
circuit must be constructed on the basis that each voltage source
is replaced by its own internal resistance. Norton’s equivalent circuit
As with the Thévenin equivalent, we can determine how a
network will behave by obtaining values for 𝑰𝑺𝑪 and 𝑹.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 32

 Thévenin’s vs Norton’s

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 33

Example: Figure shows a Wheatstone bridge. Determine the
current that will flow in a 100 Ω load connected between
terminals A and B.

Solution:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 34

Example: Figure shows a Wheatstone bridge. Determine the
current that will flow in a 100 Ω load connected between
terminals A and B.

Solution:

Firstly, we need to find the Thévenin equivalent of the circuit. To find

𝑽𝑶𝑪 we can treat the bridge arrangement as two potential dividers. The
voltage across 𝑹𝟐 will be given by:

Hence the voltage at A relative to Y, 𝑽𝑨𝒀 , will be 5.454 𝑉.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 35

 Solution:

Hence the voltage at A relative to Y, 𝑽𝑨𝒀 , will be 5.454 𝑉.

The voltage across 𝑹𝟒 will be given by:

Hence the voltage at B relative to Y, 𝑽𝑩𝒀 , will be 4.444 𝑉.

The voltage 𝑽𝑨𝑩 will be the difference between 𝑽𝑨𝒀 and 𝑽𝑩𝒀 . This, the open-circuit output voltage,
𝑽𝑨𝑩 , will be given by:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 36

 Solution:

Next, we need to find the Thévenin equivalent resistance looking in at A and B. To do this, we can
redraw the circuit, replacing the battery (connected between X and Y) with a short-circuit, as shown in the
figure.

The Thévenin equivalent resistance is given by the relationship:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 37

 Solution:
The Thévenin equivalent circuit is shown in the figure. To determine the current in a 100 Ω load
connected between A and B, we can simply add a 100 Ω load to the Thévenin equivalent circuit, as shown
in the figure. By applying Ohm’s Law in the figure we get:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 38

 C-R Circuits
Networks of capacitors and resistors (known as 𝐶-𝑅 circuits) form the basis of many timing and
pulse-shaping circuits and are thus often found in practical electronic circuits.

A C-R circuit in which 𝐶 is charged through 𝑅.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 39

 Charging
In the previous circuit, 𝑪 is charged through 𝑹 from a constant voltage source, 𝑽𝑺 . The voltage, 𝑽𝑪 ,
across the (initially uncharged) capacitor voltage will rise exponentially as shown in the first figure. At the
same time, the current in the circuit, 𝒊, will fall, as shown in the second figure.

Exponential growth of capacitor voltage 𝑉𝐶 . Exponential decay of current 𝑖.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 40

 The rate of growth of voltage with time (and decay of current with time) will be dependent upon the
product of capacitance and resistance. This value is known as the time constant of the circuit. Hence:

𝒕=𝑪×𝑹

where 𝑪 is the value of capacitance (𝑭), 𝑹 is the resistance (𝛀) and 𝒕 is the time constant (𝒔).

The voltage developed across the charging capacitor, 𝑽𝑪 , varies with time, 𝒕, according to the
relationship:
𝒕
−𝑪𝑹
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺 𝟏 − 𝒆

where 𝑽𝑪 is the capacitor voltage, 𝑽𝑺 is the D.C. supply voltage, 𝒕 is the time and 𝑪𝑹 is the time constant
of the circuit (equal to the product of capacitance, 𝑪, and resistance, 𝑹).

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 41

 The capacitor voltage will rise to approximately 63% of the supply voltage, 𝑽𝑺 , in a time interval equal to the time
constant.
At the end of the next interval of time equal to the time constant (i.e. after an elapsed time equal to 𝟐𝑪𝑹) the voltage
will have risen by 63% of the remainder, and so on. In theory, the capacitor will never become fully charged. However,
after a period of time equal to 𝟓𝑪𝑹, the capacitor voltage will to all intents and purposes be equal to the supply voltage. At
this point, the capacitor voltage will have risen to 99.3% of its final value and we can consider it to be fully charged.

Exponential growth of capacitor voltage 𝑉𝐶 .

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 42
 During charging, the current in the capacitor, 𝒊, varies with time, 𝒕, according to the relationship:
𝑽𝑺 − 𝒕
𝒊= 𝒆 𝑪𝑹
𝑹
where 𝑽𝑺 is the D.C. supply voltage, 𝒕 is the time and 𝑪𝑹 is the time constant of the circuit (equal to the
product of capacitance, 𝑪, and resistance, 𝑹).

Exponential decay of current 𝑖.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 43
 𝑽𝑺 − 𝒕
𝒊= 𝒆 𝑪𝑹
𝑹

The current will fall to approximately 37% of the initial current in a time equal to the time constant. At the
end of the next interval of time equal to the time constant (i.e. after a total time of 𝟐𝑪𝑹 has elapsed) the
current will have fallen by a further 37% of the remainder, and so on.

Exponential decay of current 𝑖.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 44
Example: An initially uncharged 1 𝜇𝐹 capacitor is charged from a 9 𝑉 D.C. supply via a 3.3 𝑀Ω resistor.
Determine the capacitor voltage 1 𝑠 after connecting the supply.

Solution:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 45

Example: An initially uncharged 1 𝜇𝐹 capacitor is charged from a 9 𝑉 D.C. supply via a 3.3 𝑀Ω resistor.
Determine the capacitor voltage 1 𝑠 after connecting the supply.

Solution: 𝑡
−𝐶𝑅
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑆 1 −𝑒

𝑡 1𝑠
−𝐶𝑅 −3.3 𝑠
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑆 1 − 𝑒 = 9𝑉 × 1− 𝑒 = 9 𝑉 × 1 − 0.738 = 2.358 𝑉

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 46

 Discharge

Having considered the situation when a capacitor is being charged, let’s consider what happens when
an already charged capacitor is discharged.

A 𝐶-𝑅 circuit in which 𝐶 is initially charged and then discharges through 𝑅.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 47

 When the fully charged capacitor from the previous figure is connected as shown in the figure, the
capacitor will discharge through the resistor, and the capacitor voltage, 𝑽𝑪 , will fall exponentially with
time, as shown in the left figure. The current in the circuit, 𝒊, will also fall, as shown in the right figure.
The rate of discharge (i.e. the rate of decay of voltage with time) will once again be governed by the time
constant of the circuit, 𝑪 × 𝑹.

Exponential decay of capacitor voltage 𝑉𝐶 . Exponential decay of current 𝑖.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 48

 The voltage developed across the discharging capacitor, 𝑽𝑪 , varies with time, 𝒕, according to the
relationship:
𝒕
−
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺 × 𝒆 𝑪𝑹

where 𝑽𝑪 is the capacitor voltage, 𝑽𝑺 is the D.C. supply voltage, 𝒕 is the time and 𝑪𝑹 is the time constant
of the circuit (equal to the product of capacitance, 𝑪, and resistance, 𝑹).

As with charging, the current in the capacitor, 𝒊, varies with time, 𝒕, according to the relationship:

𝑽𝑺 − 𝒕
𝒊= 𝒆 𝑪𝑹
𝑹
where 𝑽𝑺 is the supply voltage, 𝒕 is the time and 𝑪𝑹 is the time constant of the circuit (equal to the product
of capacitance, 𝑪, and resistance, 𝑹).

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 49

 The capacitor voltage will fall to approximately 37% of the initial voltage in a time equal to the time constant. At
the end of the next interval of time equal to the time constant (i.e. after an elapsed time equal to 𝟐𝑪𝑹) the voltage will
have fallen by 37% of the remainder, and so on.
In theory, the capacitor will never become fully discharged. However, after a period of time equal to 𝟓𝑪𝑹, the
capacitor voltage will to all intents and purposes be zero. At this point, the capacitor voltage will have fallen below 1%
of its initial value. We can consider it to be fully discharged.

Exponential decay of capacitor voltage 𝑉𝐶 .

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 50
 The current will fall to approximately 37% of the initial value of current, 𝑽𝑺 /𝑹, in a time equal to the time
constant.
At the end of the next interval of time equal to the time constant (i.e. after a total time of 𝟐𝑪𝑹 has elapsed) the
voltage will have fallen by a further 37% of the remainder, and so on.

Exponential decay of current 𝑖.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 51

Example: A 10 𝜇𝐹 capacitor is charged to a potential of 20 𝑉 and then discharged through a 47 𝑘Ω resistor.
Determine the time taken for the capacitor voltage to fall below 10 𝑉.

Solution:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 52

Example: A 10 𝜇𝐹 capacitor is charged to a potential of 20 𝑉 and then discharged through a 47 𝑘Ω resistor.
Determine the time taken for the capacitor voltage to fall below 10 𝑉.

Solution: 𝑡
−𝐶𝑅
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑆 × 𝑒

𝑉𝐶 = 10 𝑉

𝑉𝑆 = 20 𝑉

𝑉𝐶 10 𝑉
𝑡 = −𝐶𝑅 × ln = − 0.47 𝑠 × ln ≅ 0.326 𝑠
𝑉𝑆 20 𝑉

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 53

 Waveshaping with C-R Networks
One of the most common applications of 𝑪– 𝑹 networks is in waveshaping circuits. The circuits shown in the
below figures function as simple square-to-triangle and square-to-pulse converters by, respectively, integrating and
differentiating their inputs.

A 𝐶 − 𝑅 integrating circuit and typical input & output A 𝐶 − 𝑅 differentiating circuit and typical input & output
waveforms for the integrating circuit waveforms for the integrating circuit
EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 54
 L-R Circuits
Networks of inductors and resistors (known as 𝐿– 𝑅 circuits) can also be used for timing and pulse shaping. In
comparison with capacitors, however, inductors are somewhat more difficult to manufacture and are consequently more
expensive.
Inductors are also prone to losses and may also require screening to minimize the effects of stray magnetic
coupling. Inductors are, therefore, generally unsuited to simple timing and waveshaping applications.

A L-R circuit in which 𝐿 is initially charged and then discharges through 𝑅.

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 55

 The previous figure shows a simple 𝑳 − 𝑹 network in which an inductor is connected to a constant
voltage supply. When the supply is first connected, the current, 𝒊, will rise exponentially with time, as
shown in the left figure. At the same time, the inductor voltage, 𝑽𝑳 , will fall, as shown in the right figure.
The rate of change of current with time will depend upon the ratio of inductance to resistance and is
known as the time constant. Hence:

𝒕 = 𝑳Τ𝑹

where 𝑳 is the value of inductance (𝑯), 𝑹 is the resistance (𝛀), and 𝒕 is the time constant (𝒔).

The current flowing in the inductor, 𝒊, varies with time, 𝒕, according to the relationship:

𝑽𝑺 𝒕𝑹
−𝑳
𝒊= 𝟏−𝒆
𝑹
where 𝑽𝑺 is the D.C. supply voltage, 𝑹 is the resistance (𝛀) of the inductor and 𝑳 is the inductance (𝑯).

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 56

 The voltage developed across the inductor, 𝑽𝑳 , varies with time, t, according to the relationship:
𝒕𝑹
−𝑳
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑺 × 𝒆

where 𝑽𝑺 is the D.C. supply voltage, 𝑹 is the resistance (𝛀) of the inductor and 𝑳 is the inductance (𝑯).

Exponential growth of current 𝑖 Exponential decay of voltage 𝑉𝐿

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 57
 The current, i, will initially be zero and will rise to approximately 63% of its maximum value (i.e. 𝑽𝑺 Τ𝑹) in a
time interval equal to the time constant. At the end of the next interval of time equal to the time constant (i.e. after a
total time of 𝟐𝑳/𝑹 has elapsed) the current will have risen by a further 63% of the remainder, and so on.
In theory, the current in the inductor will never become equal to 𝑽𝑺 Τ𝑹. However, after a period of time equal to
𝟓𝑳/𝑹, the current will to all intents and purposes be equal to 𝑽𝑺 Τ𝑹. At this point the current in the inductor will have
risen to 99.3% of its final value.

Exponential growth of current 𝑖

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 58
 The inductor voltage will fall to approximately 37% of the initial voltage in a time equal to the time constant.
At the end of the next interval of time equal to the time constant (i.e. after a total time of 𝟐𝑳/𝑹 has elapsed) the
voltage will have fallen by a further 37% of the remainder, and so on.

Exponential decay of voltage 𝑉𝐿

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 59

Example: A coil having inductance 6 𝐻 and resistance 24 Ω is connected to a 12 𝑉 D.C. supply. Determine the
current in the inductor 0.1 𝑠 after the supply is first connected.

Solution:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 60

 Example: A coil having inductance 6 𝐻 and resistance 24 Ω is connected to a 12 𝑉 D.C. supply. Determine the
current in the inductor 0.1 𝑠 after the supply is first connected.

Solution:
𝑉𝑆 −
𝑡𝑅
𝑖= 1−𝑒 𝐿
𝑅

0.1 𝑠 × 24 
𝑉𝑆 𝑡𝑅
−𝐿 12 𝑉 −
𝑖= 1−𝑒 = × 1−𝑒 6𝐻 = 0.5 × 1 − 𝑒 −0.4 = 0.5 × 1 − 0.67 = 0.165 𝐴
𝑅 24 

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 61

 Important Formulas Introduced in This Chapter
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (𝐴𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 0):

𝚺𝑰 = 𝟎

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (𝐴𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒. 𝑚. 𝑓. 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑙𝑔𝑒𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑠):

𝚺𝑽 = 𝟎

Potential Divider:

Current Divider:

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 62

 Wheatstone Bridge:

Time constant of a 𝐶-𝑅 circuit:

Capacitor voltage (charge) and current (charge):

−
𝒕 𝑽𝑺 − 𝒕
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺 𝟏 − 𝒆 𝑪𝑹 𝒊= 𝒆 𝑪𝑹
𝑹
Capacitor voltage (discharge) and current (discharge):
𝒕
−𝑪𝑹
𝑽𝑺 − 𝒕
𝑽𝑪 = 𝑽𝑺 𝒆 𝒊= 𝒆 𝑪𝑹
𝑹
Time constant of a 𝐿-𝑅 circuit:

Inductor current (growth) and voltage (decay):

𝑽𝑺 −
𝒕𝑹 𝒕𝑹
−𝑳
𝒊= 𝟏−𝒆 𝑳 𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝑺 𝒆
𝑹
EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 63
 Symbols Introduced in This Chapter

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 64

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 65
 Asst.Prof. Zehra Merve Cinan
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
8th Block, Floor: 2
Office: 2521

[email protected]

EEE213-ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS / 2023-2024 FALL 66