.

UNIT III QUANTUM PHYSICS

OBJECTIVES
1) To explain the principle of black body radiation
2) To reveal the energy distribution in black body radiation
3) To derive Planck’s equation for radiation
4) To explain the particle and wave nature (matter waves) of the quantum particles.
5) To derive de-Broglie equation related with momentum and wavelength of the particle
6) To discuss the properties of the matter waves and explain the experimental evidence
of matter waves.
7) To derive the Schrödinger wave equation for the motion of quantum particles.
8) To discuss the importance of uncertainty principle
9) To derive application of Schrödinger equation for a particle in one – dimensional box
and its importance.
10) To study the principle, mechanism, and applications of optical based instruments
11) To explore the method to find the attitude of sun and height of a tower building
12) To understand the operating principle and applications of optical microscope ,TEM
and SEM
13) To understand the role of optical instruments in material characterization.

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Laws of thermodynamics and classical laws of electricity and magnetism

provide the basis for explanation of all phenomena in classical physics. It was
general belief of the scientists that these laws would suffice to account for any
subsequent discovered phenomena. Classical mechanics successfully explained the
motion of the objects, which are directly observable. When the objects are not
observable, then the concept of classical mechanics cannot be applied.

The phenomena in the realm of the atoms, nuclei and elementary particles are
commonly reefed to as quantum phenomena and subject matter containing all these
phenomena constitutes what is known as Quantum Physics.

3.1 Inadequacy of Classical Mechanics

According to the classical mechanics, if we consider the case of an electron

moving round the nucleus, its energy should decrease (because the accelerated
charged particle loses energy in the form of electromagnetic waves) and therefore its
velocity should decrease continuously. The ultimate result is that the electron comes
closer and closer to the nucleus until it collapses. This shows the instability of the
atom; it is in contradiction to the observed fact of the stability of an atom. Thus the
classical mechanics fails to explain the stability of an atom.

The classical mechanics also failed to explain the spectrum of the hydrogen
atom. Acc to the classical theory, the excited atoms of hydrogen emit electromagnetic
radiations of all wavelengths continuously, while it is observed that they emit the
radiation of certain wavelengths only.

3.2Difficulties with classical theories of Black Body Radiation and Origin of

Quantum Theory of Radiation

We know that when bodies radiate energy, their temperature falls until the
loss of energy is compensated by an external source. In case of heat radiation, we can
obtain the thermal equilibrium by maintaining the body at a fixed temperature with
the help of some heat-giving source. In this case he body gives as much radiation as

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it receives. If the body absorbs all the incident radiation, then it is called Black Body
radiation. In actual practice, it is not possible to realize a perfectly black body, but an
enclosure provided with a small opening serves the purpose because the radiation
entering the enclosure will be reflected many times inside the enclosure and
ultimately absorbed.

3.3 BLACK BODY RADIATION:

Perfect black body:
A perfect black body is one which absorbs and emits in all the
radiations (corresponding to all wavelengths) that fall on it. The radiation given
out by a perfect black body is called Black body radiation.
Kirchhoff’s law:
Ratio of emissive power to the coefficient of absorption of any given
wavelength is the same for all bodies at a given temperature and is equal to the
emissive power of the black body at that temperature.

e
E
a
Experiment:
In practice a perfect black body is not available. Therefore let us consider a
hollow sphere coated with lamp black on its inner surface.

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A fine hole is made for radiations to enter into the sphere as shown in the
figure.
Now when the radiations are made to pass through the hole it undergoes
multiple reflections and are completely absorbed. Thus the black body acts as a
perfect absorber.
Now when the black body is placed in a temperature bath of fixed
temperature, the heat radiations will come out only through the hole in the sphere and
not through the walls of the sphere.
Therefore, we can conclude that the radiations are emitted from the inner
surface of the sphere and not from the outer surface of the sphere. Thus a perfect
black body is a perfect absorber and also a perfect radiator of all wavelengths.
Energy spectrum:
When a perfect black body is allowed to emit radiations at different
temperatures , then the distribution of the energy for different wavelengths at various
temperatures is obtained as shown in the figure.
From figure the following results are formulated.

i. The energy distribution is not uniform for a given temperature.

ii. The intensity of radiation (E) increases with respect to the increase in wavelength at
at particular wavelength in becomes maximum (λm) and after this it starts decreasing
with respect to the increase in wavelength.
iii. When the temperature is increased, the maximum wavelength (λm) decreases.

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iv. For all the wavelengths an increase in its temperature causes increase in energy.
v. The total energy emitted at any particular temperature can be calculated from the area
under that particular curve.
Laws for explaining the energy distribution:
1. Stefan- Boltzmann Law
According to this law the radiant energy (E) of the body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the temperature (T) of the body.

E T4
E T4
2 5 K B4
Where = Stefan Constant, given by
15 h 3 c 2
2. Wien’s displacement law:
This law states that the product of then wavelength m corresponding to the
maximum energy and the absolute temperature (T) is a constant.

m T Cons tan t

This law shows that, as the temperature increases, the wavelength

corresponding to maximum energy decreases.
Wien also showed that the maximum energy (Emax) is directly proportional to
the fifth power of the absolute temperature.

E m ax T5
E m ax Cons tantT 5
By deducing this law he obtained a law called Wien’s law of distribution of
energy (Eλ), given by
5 C2 T
E C1 e
hc
Where C1 and C2 are constants given by C1 8 hc and C 2
KB
3. Raleigh Jeans law:
According to this law, the energy distribution is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature and is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength.

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It is governed by the equation

8 K BT
E 4

Where KB is Boltzmann Constant.

This law holds well only for longer wavelength regions and not for shorter
wavelengths.
It is found that, both Wien’s and Raleigh Jeans law don’t agree with the
experimental results. Therefore we can conclude that the classical theory was not
able to explain the emission of black body radiation. Thus Max Planck used
Quantum theory to explain Black body radiation.
3.4 PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
Planck suggested that the correct results could be obtained if the energy of
oscillating electrons is taken as discrete rather than continuous. He suggested
quantum theory of radiation. Planck suggested in deriving the formula, which agrees
extremely well with experimental results. He derived the radiation law by using the
following assumptions.
a. A black body chamber is filled up not only with radiation, but also with simple
harmonic oscillators or harmonic oscillators or resonators of molecular dimensions.
They can vibrate with all possible frequencies.
b. The frequency of radiation emitted by an oscillator is the same as the frequency of its
vibration.
c. An oscillator cannot emit energy in a continuous manner. It can emit energy in the
multiples of a small unit called Quantum (Photon).
If an oscillator is vibrating with a frequency , it can radiate in quantas of magnitude h .
The oscillator can have only discrete energy En given by
En = n h = n where h =
Here n is an integer and h is the Planck’s constant
The energy of the single photon of the frequency is
=h
d. The oscillators can emit or absorb radiation energy in packets of h .
This implies that the exchange of energy between the radiation and matter cannot
take place continuously but are limited to discrete set of values 0, hγ, 2hγ, 3hγ, nhγ.

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The emission of radiation corresponds to a decrease and absorption to an increase in

the energy and amplitude of an oscillator.
3.4.1Planck’s law of radiation:
Statement:
The energy density of heat radiation emitted from an enclosure at temperature T in
the wavelength range from to d is given by
8 hc
E d h
d
5 kT
e 1

Here h = Planck’s constant

C= speed of the light
K= Boltzmann constant
T = temperature of the enclosure

3.4.2 DERIVATION OF PLANCK’S LAW OF RADIATION

Assume that a black body consists of energy by a large number of atomic oscillators.
E
Average energy E
N
Where E is the total energy and N is the number of oscillators.

Number of atomic oscillators in ground state = N 0

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From Maxwell’s distribution law, the number of oscillators having energy n in

excess of ground state energy ( 0 ) is given by

Nn N 0 e kT
Where T – Absolute temperature
K – Boltzmann’s Constant
Let N be the total number of Planck’s oscillators and N1, N2, N3 etc be the number of
oscillators with energies 0 , 1, 2 .......... , then

0 1
kT kT
N N0e N0e ....
We know from Planck’s quantum theory, can be a quanta of integral
values of hγ and so the possible values of are 0, 2hγ, and 3hγ etc.
h 2h
N N0e0 N0e kT
N0e kT
....
h 2h
kT kT
N N0 N0e N0e ....
 e0 1
h
kT
Put x e
N N0 N0 x N0 x2 N 0 x3 ...

N N0 1 x x2 x3 ...
N0
N
1 x
1 1
 1 x 1 x2 x3 .... By using Binomial Series
1 x

Total energy E 0 N0 1 N1 2 N2 ......

Substituting the values of 0 , 1 , 2 , ….. We have

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h 2h
kT kT
E 0 N0 h N0e 2h N 0 e .......
h
kT
We know x e
E h N 0 x 2h N 0 x 2 ......

E h N 0 x 2 x 2 ........

E h N0 x 1 2x ........
h N0 x
E 2
1 x
1 2
 1 x 1 2x .... By using Binomial Series
(1 x) 2
h N0 x
2
1 x
E
N0
1 x
h N0 x 1 x
E 2
1 x N0
h x h x
E
1 x 1
x 1
x
h
kT
Substituting x e , we have
h
E
1
h
1
kT
e

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h
E h
kT
e 1

Number of oscillators per unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ+dλ is given
by

8 d
4

The energy density of radiation between wavelengths λ and λ+dλ is given by

Eλdλ = (Number of oscillators per unit volume in the interval λ and λ+dλ)
×
(Average energy per oscillator)
8 d h
E d 4 h
kT
e 1

hc
8 d c
E d 4 h

kT
e 1

8 hcd 1
E d 5 h
kT
e 1

8 hc 1
E 5 h
kT
e 1

This equation represents Planck’s radiation law in terms of wavelength.

This law explained significantly the entire blackbody spectrum. It can also be
c cd
expressed in terms of frequencies by substituting and d 2
in the Planck

law. Then

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3
8 h 1
E d
c3 h
kT
e 1

3.4.2.1 DEDUCTION OF WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW:

h
h kT
When λ is small, γ is very large, hence 1 and e is large when
kT
compared to 1. Hence, ‘1’ is neglected in the denominator
Hence the equation reduces to

8 hc 1
E 5 h
kT
e
This is Wien’s displacement law.
Therefore Planck’s law reduces to Wien’s displacement for smaller
wavelengths.
3.4.2.2 DEDUCTION OF RAYELIGH JEANS LAW:
h
When λ is very large, γ is very small, 1 and
kT
h
kT
h
e 1 (Using exponential series and neglecting higher powers)
kT

Now equation reduces to

8 hc 1
E 5 h
1 1
kT

8 hc
E
5 h

kT
8 h c
E 
5 h v
kT

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8 kT
E 4

This is Rayleigh – Jeans law.

Therefore, Planck’s law reduces to Rayleigh – Jeans law for longer
wavelength.
Planck’s formula is found to agree remarkably well with experimental
observations of Lummer, Pringsheim, Kurlbaum etc. and is thus an established
formula for all validity of quantum hypothesis.
3.5 COMPTON EFFECT:
When a beam of monochromatic radiation such as x- rays, gamma rays etc of
high frequency is allowed to fall on the scatterer, the beam is scattered into two
components
i. One component having the same frequency or wavelength as that of
the incident photon, so called unmodified radiation
ii. The other component having lower frequency or higher wavelength
compared to incident radiation , so called modified radiation
This effect is called Compton Effect.

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3.5.1 Compton shift:

When a photon of energy ‘hγ’ collides with an electron of a scatterer at rest;
the photon gives its energy to the electron. Therefore the scattered photon will have
lesser energy or lower frequency or higher wavelength compared to the wavelength
of incident photon. Since the electron gains energy, it recoils with velocity’s’. This
effect is called Compton Effect and the shift in wavelength is called Compton shift.
Thus as a result of Compton scattering, we get (i) unmodified radiations (ii)
modified radiations and (iii) a recoil electron.

3.5.2 THEORY OF COMPTON EFFECT:

Principle:
In Compton scattering the collision between a photon and an electron
is considered. Then by applying the laws if conservation of energy and momentum,
the expression for Compton wavelength is derived.

Assumptions:
1. The collision occurs between the photon and an electron in the
scattering material
2. The electron is free and is at rest before collision with the incident
photon.
With these assumptions, let us consider a photon energy hγ colliding within
electron at rest.

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During the collision process, a part of kinetic energy is given to the electron,
which in turn increases the kinetic energy of the electron and hence it recoils at an
angle of φ as shown.
The scattered photon moves with an energy h ( lesser than hγ) , at an angle
θ with respect to the original direction.
Let us find the energy and momentum components before and after collision.

ENERGY BEFORE COLLISION.

i. Energy of the incident photon = h
ii. Energy of the electron at rest = m0 c 2
Where m0 is the rest mass of the electron
Total energy before collision = h m0 c 2 1

ENERGY AFTER COLLISION:

i. Energy of the scattered photon = h
ii. Energy of the recoil electron = m c 2

Where m is the mass of the electron moving with velocity ‘v’

Total energy after collision= h m c2 2

We know according to law of conservation of energy

Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision

h m0 c 2 h m c2 3

X-component of Momentum before collision:

h
i. X-component momentum of the incident photon =
c
ii. X-component momentum of the electron at rest = 0
h
Total X-component of Momentum before collision = 3
c

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X-component of Momentum after collision:

i. X-component of the scattered photon can be calculated from the figure.
Mx
In OAB cos
h c
h
X-component of Momentum of the scattered photon = cos
c
ii X-component Momentum of recoil electron an be calculated as
follows
MX
in OBC cos
mv
X-component Momentum of recoil electron = mv cos

h
Total X-component of Momentum after collision = cos mv cos
c
5
We know according to the law of conservation of momentum
Total Momentum before collision = Total Momentum after collision

h h
= cos mv cos 6
c c

Y-component of Momentum before collision

I. Y – component momentum of the incident photon = 0
II. Y – component of the electron at rest = 0
Total Y _component of momentum before collision = 0 7

Y-component of Momentum after collision

My
I. From figure in OAE, Sin
h c

h
Y-component Momentum of the scattered Photon = sin
c
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My
II. from figure in OCD , Sin
mv
Y-component Momentum of the recoil electron = mv sin

h
Total Y-component of Momentum after collision = sin mv sin
c
According to the law of conservation of momentum 8

h
0 sin mv sin 9
c
From equation (6), we can write
h h
cos mv cos
c c
mcv cos h cos 10
From equation 9 we can write
mcv sin h sin 11
Squaring and adding both sides of equation 10 and 11, we have,

2
m 2 c 2 v 2 cos 2 sin 2 h2 2
2 cos 2
cos 2 h2 sin 2
2 2
Since cos2 sin 2 = 1 and h 2 cos 2 sin 2 h2 we get

m2c 2v 2 h2 2
2 cos 2
12
From equation 3 we can write

mc 2 m0 c 2 h
Squaring both sides we get
2
m2 c 4 m0 c 4 2hm0 c 2 ( ) h2 2
2 2
13
Subtracting equation 12 from equation 13. We get

m 2c 2 c 2 v2 m02 c 4 2hm0 c 2 2h 2 1 cos

13

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From the theory of relativity, the relativistic formula

m0
m
v2
1 2
c

2 m02
Squaring, we get m
v2
1 2
c
2 2
Or m c v2 m02 c 2 15
In order to make this equation, similar to LHS of the equation 13 multiply it
by c2 both side

We get m2c 2 c 2 v2 m02 c 4 16

Equating equations 16 and 13 we can write

m 2c 2 c 2 v2 m02 c 4 2hm0 c 2 2h 2 1 cos

m02 c 4 m02 c 4 2hm0 c 2 2h 2 1 cos

2
Or 2hm0 c 2h 2 1 cos
h
1 cos
m0 c 2
h
1 cos
m0 c 2
1 1 h
1 cos
m0 c 2
Multiplying both sides by ‘c’, we get
c c hc
1 cos 17
m0 c 2
c c
Since and we can write equation 17 as
v
h
1 cos
m0 c

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h
Or change in wavelength 1 cos 18
m0 c
Equation 18 represents the shift in wavelength, i.e., Compton shift which is
independent of the incident radiation as well as the nature of the scattering substance.
Thus the shift in wavelength or Compton shift purely depends upon the angle
of scattering.
3.5.3 SPECIAL CASES:
Case (i) when θ = 0 cosθ = 1
Equation 18 becomes 0
This implies that at θ = 0, the scattering is absent and the out coming radiation
has the same wavelength or frequency as that of the incident radiation. Thus we get
the output as a single peak.
Case (ii) when θ = 900 ;cosθ = 0
h
Equation 18 becomes
m0 c
Substituting the values of h, m0, and c we have

6.625 10 34
9.11 10 31 3 108
0
0.02424 A
This wavelength is called Compton Wavelength, which has good agreement
with the experimental results.
Case (iii) when θ = 1800; cosθ = -1
h
Equation 18 becomes 1 1
m0 c
2h
m0 c
Substituting the values of h, m0, and c we have
0
0.04848 A

Thus for θ =1800 the shift in wavelength is found to be maximum

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When the angle of scattering (θ) varies from 00 to 1800, the wavelength
2h
shifts from λ to λ +
m0 c

3.5.4 EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION OF COMPTON EFFECT

Principle:
When a photon of energy hγ collides with a scattering element, the
scattered beam has two components, viz., one of the same frequencies or wavelength
as that of the incident radiation and the other has lower frequency or higher
wavelength compared to incident frequency or wavelength. This effect is called
Compton Effect and the shift in wavelength is called Compton Shift.
Construction:
It consists of an X-ray tube fro producing X-rays. A small block of
Carbon C (scattering element) is mounted on a circular table as shown in the figure.
A Bragg’s spectrometer (Bs) is allowed to freely swing in an arc about
the scattering element to catch the scattered photons. Slits S1 and S2 helps to focus
the X-rays onto the scattering element.

Working:
X-rays of monochromatic wavelength ’λ’ is produced from an X-ray
tube and is made to pass through the slits S1 and S2. These X- rays are made to fall on
the scattering element. The scattered X-rays are received with the help of the Bragg’s
spectrometer and the scattered wavelength is measured.

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The experiment is repeated for various scattering angles and the

scattered wavelengths are measured. The experimental results are plotted as shown in
the figure.
In this figure when the scattering angle θ = 00, the scattered radiation
peak will be the same as that of the incident radiation Peak ‘A’. now , when the
scattering angle is increased, for one incident radiation peak A of wavelength ‘λ’ we
get two scattered peaks ‘A’ and B. here the peak A is found to be of same
wavelength as that of the incident wavelength and the peak ‘B’ is of greater
wavelength than the incident radiation
The shift in wavelength or difference in wavelength of the two
scattered beams is found to increase with respect to the increase in the scattering
angle.
At θ = 900, the is found to be 0.0236 0.02424, which has good
agreement with the theoretical results. Hence this wavelength is called Compton
wavelength and the shift in wavelength is called Compton shift.

3.6 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION (LIGHT) AND MATTER (PARTICLES) – MATTER

WAVES
de- Broglie concept of dual nature:
The universe is made of radiation (light) and matter (particles). The light
exhibits the dual nature (ie.) it can behave both a wave (interference, diffraction,
phenomenon) and as a particle (Compton Effect, photo electric effect etc.)

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Since the nature loves symmetry, in 1923 Louis debroglie suggested that an
electron or any other material particle must exhibit wave like properties in addition to
particle nature.
The waves associated with a material particle are called as matter waves.
De-Broglie wavelength:
From the theory of light, considering a photon as a particle the total
energy of the photon is given by
E = mc2. (1)
Where m is the mass of the particle
c is the velocity of light
Considering the photon as a wave, the total energy is given by
E = hγ (2)
Where h is the Planck’s constant
Γ is the frequency of the radiation.

From equations (1) and (2)

E = mc2 = hγ (3)
We know Momentum = Mass × velocity
p = mc
h pc
h c
p sin ce
c
h
We can write p

h
Or the wavelength (3)
p
de-Broglie suggested that the equation 3 can be applied both for photons and material
particles. If m is the mass of the particle and v is the velocity the particle, then
Momentum p = mv

h
de-Broglie wavelength
mv 5

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3.6.1 de-Broglie wavelength in terms of energy

1 2
E mv
2
m 2 v 2 2 Em
mv 2 Em
We know

h
2mE 6

3.6.2 de-Broglie wavelength in terms of Voltage

If a charged particle of charge ’e’ is accelerated through a potential difference

‘v’
1
Then the Kinetic Energy of the particle = mv 2 (7)
2
Also we know energy = eV (8)
Equating 7 and 8, we get,
1 2
mv eV
2
Multiplying by ‘m’ both sides, we get

m2v 2 2meV
Or mv 2meV (9)
Substituting 9 in 5, we get
de-Broglie wavelength
h
2meV (10)

3.6.3 de-Broglie wavelength in terms of Temperature

When a particle like neutron is in thermal equilibrium at temperature T, then

they possess Maxwell distribution of velocities.

1 2
Their kinetic energy Ek mvrms (11)
2
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Where v rms is the Root mean square velocity of the particle.

3
Also, we know energy = K B T (12)
2
Where K B is the Boltzmann constant.

Equating (11) and (12) we get

1 2 3
mv K BT
2 2
m2v 2 3mK B T
mv 3mKBT

h h
de-Broglie wavelength (13)
mv 3mK BT

3.7 SCHROEDINGER WAVE EQUATION

Schröedinger wave equation describes the wave nature of a

particle in the mathematical form. It is the basic equation of motion of matter
waves.
If the particle has wave properties, then there should be some sort of
wave equation to describe the behavior of that particle.
Schrödinger connected the expression of de-Broglie’s wavelength
with the classical wave equation for a moving particle and he obtained a new wave
equation

3.7.1 FORMS OF SCHROEDINGER WAVE EQUATION

There are two forms of Schröedinger wave equation. They are
a. Time independent wave equation
b. Time dependent wave equation

3.8 SCHROEDINGER TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION

Consider a system of stationary waves associated with a particle.
Let x, y, z be the coordinates of the particle and be the wave displacement
for de-Broglie’s waves at any time t.

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 ELECTRON DIFFRACTION

The emission of electrons in the form of waves is electron diffraction. We define

electron diffraction as the wave nature of electrons.

In technical or practical terms, we consider it a technique that can be used to study

matter by firing electrons at a sample and observe the results as the interference
pattern.

Electron diffraction is an effect due to the wavelike nature of electrons and observed
when a narrow beam of them upon passing through a very thin layer of a material
(such as a metal crystal) is deflected in particular directions and if allowed to fall on a
fluorescent screen produces a pattern of light and dark areas, the pattern formed by
these areas being characteristic of the material traversed.

 Electron diffraction tubes can be used to investigate the wave properties of

electrons
 The electrons are accelerated in an electron gun to a high potential, such as
5000 V, and are then directed through a thin film of graphite
 The electrons diffract from the gaps between carbon atoms and produce a
circular pattern on a fluorescent screen made from phosphor

 Increasing the voltage between the anode and the cathode causes the
energy, and hence speed, of the electrons to increase
 The kinetic energy of the electrons is proportional to the voltage across the
anode-cathode:
  Electrons are normally referred to as particles, however, diffraction is a wave-
like behaviour
o Therefore, electron diffraction provides evidence for the wave-like
behaviour of particles

Applications

Electron diffraction refers to the bending of electron beams around atomic structures.
This behaviour, typical for waves, is applicable to electrons due to the wave–particle
duality stating that electrons behave as both particles and waves.

Since the diffracted beams interfere, they generate diffraction patterns widely used
for analysis of the objects which caused the diffraction.

Therefore, electron diffraction can also refer to derived experimental techniques

used for material characterization. This technique is similar to X-ray and neutron
diffraction.

Electron diffraction is most frequently used in solid state physics and chemistry to
study crystalline, quasi-crystalline and amorphous materials using electron
microscopes.

In transmission electron microscopy (TEM), the most frequent technique related to

the electron diffraction is selected area diffraction allowing to measure crystal
properties or reconstruct its structure.

. In scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron backscatter diffraction is used to

determine crystal orientation across the sample. The potential of electron diffraction
is not only limited to solids. It can be used to characterize individual molecules
dispersed in a gaseous atmosphere using gas electron diffraction.
 .

The classical differential equation of a wave motion is given by

2 2 2 2
1
(1)
x2 y2 z2 v2 t2
Here v is the wave velocity
Equation (1) is written as
2
2 1
(2)
v2 t2
2 2 2
2
Where and is the Laplacian operator.
x2 y2 z2
The solution of equation 2 gives as a periodic displacement in terms of
time t,
i t
x, y , z , t 0 x, y , z e (3)

Here 0 x, y , z is a function of x, y, z only and gives amplitude at the

point considered.
Differentiating equation (3) with respect to t, we get

i t
i 0 e
t
Again differentiating with respect to t
2
i t
2
i i 0 e
t
2
i2 2
0 e i t

t2
2
2
2 (3)
t
Substituting (3) in (2), we have
2
2

v2
2
2
0 (5)
v2

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 .

v
But, angular frequency 2 2

v
Here, is the frequency 

2
(6)
v
Squaring equation (6) both sides, we get
2 2
4
(7)
v2 2

Substituting equation (7) in equation (5), we have

2
2 4
2
0 (8)

h
We know that de-Broglie wavelength , on substituting the value of λ
mv
in equation (8), we get

2 4 2
0
h2
m 2v 2
2
2 4 m2v 2
0 (9)
h2
1
If E is the total energy of the particle, V is the potential energy and mv 2 is
2
the Kinetic energy, then
1
Total energy (E) = potential Energy (V) + Kinetic Energy mv 2
2

1 2
E V mv
2
1 2
E V mv
2
Multiplying by m on both sides

m2v 2 2m E V (10)
Substituting equation (10) in equation (9), we get

. – .Page 25

.
 .

2 4 2
2m E V 0
h2
2
2 8 m
2
E V 0 (11)
h
This equation (11) is known as Schroedinger time independent wave equation
h
Let us now substitute  in equation (11)
2

2 h2

4 2
Where  is a reduced Planck’s constant
The equation (11) is modified as,

2 m
E V 0
h2
8 2
2 m
E V 0
h2
2 22 2

2 2m
E V 0
h2
4 2
2 2m
E V 0 (12)
2

3.9 SCHROEDINGER TIME DEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION

Schoredinger time independent wave equation is derived from Schroedinger
time independent wave equation.
The solution of classical differential equation of the wave motion is given by
i t
x, y , z , t 0 x, y , z e (1)
Differentiating equation (1) with respect to time t we get

i t
i 0 e (2)
t

. – .Page 26

.
 .

i t
i2 0 e  2
t
i t
i2  0 e (3)
t
E E
2 i E h
t h h
E E h
i i 
t h  2
2
E
i (3)
t 
Multiplying by i on both the sides

E E
i i i i2
t  h
E
i i i i2 1
t 

Or E i (5)
t
We know that Schroedinger time independent wave equation is given by

2 2m
E V 0 (6)
2
Substituting the value of E from equation (5) in equation (6), we get

2 2m
i V 0
2 t

2 2m
i V
2 t

2 2
i V
2m t
2 2
V i
2m t

. – .Page 27

.
 .

2 2
V i (7)
2m t

Or H E (8)

This equation (8) is known as Schroedinger time dependent wave equation.

2 2
Where H V is Hamiltonian Operator
2m

And E i
t
3.10 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WAVE FUNCTION
1. The variable quantity that characterizes d-Broglie wave is called wave
function .
2. The wave function represents the variations in the matter waves and
it connects the particle nature and its associated wave nature
statistically.
3. The wave function associated with a moving particle at a particular
instant of time and at a particular point in space is related to the
probability of finding the particle at that instant and at that point.
4. The probability 0 corresponds to the certainty of not finding the
particle and probability 1 corresponds to the certainty of finding the
particle.
d = 1 if particle is present

d = 0 if particle is not present

5. The wave function is a complex quantity that cannot be measured.

6. The probability of finding a particle at particular region must be real
and positive, but the wave function is in general a complex
quantity.
The probability density is given by

2
P r,t r,t

. – .Page 28

.
 .

3.11 PARTICLE IN A ONE DIMENSIONAL BOX

Let us consider particle (electron) of mass ’m’ moving along the x-axis,
enclosed in a one dimensional potential box as shown in the figure.
Since the walls are of infinite potential the particle does not penetrate out
from the box.
Also, the particle is confined between the length ‘l’ of the box and has elastic
collisions with the walls. Therefore, the potential energy of the electron inside the
box is constant and can be taken as zero for simplicity.

We can say that the Outside the box and on the wall of the box, the
potential energy V of the electron is .
Inside the box the potential energy (V) of the electron is zero.
In other words we can write the boundary condition as

V x 0when0 x l
V x when0 x l
Since the particle cannot exist outside the box the wave
function 0when0 x l.
To find the wave function of the particle within the box of length ‘l’, let us
consider the Schroedinger one dimensional time independent wave equation(i.e.,)

d2 2m
E V 0
dx 2 2

. – .Page 29

.
 .

Since the potential energy inside the box is zero [i.e. =0], the particle has
kinetic energy alone and thus it is named as a free particle or free electron
For a free particle (electron), the Schroedinger wave equation is given by

d2 2m
E 0 0
dx 2 2
d2 2m
E 0 (1)
dx 2 2
d2 2mE
Or k2 0 where k 2 (2)
dx 2 2
Equation (1) is a second order differential equation; therefore, it should have
solution with two arbitrary constants.
The solution for equation (1) is given by

x A sin kx B cos kx (3)

Where A and b are called Arbitrary constants, which can be found by
applying the boundary conditions.
V x When x= 0 and x= l
Boundary condition (i) at x=0 Potential energy v= . There is no chance
for finding the particle at the walls of the box, x 0
Equation (3) becomes
0 A sin 0 B cos 0
0 0 B1
B 0
Boundary condition (i) at x=l Potential energy v= . There is no chance
for finding the particle at the walls of the box, x 0
Equation (3) becomes
0 A sin kl B cos kl
B 0
0 A sin kl
Since a 0; sin kl 0
We know sin n 0
Comparing two equations, we can write kl=nπ where n is an integer.

. – .Page 30

.
 .

n
Or k (3)
l
Substituting the value of B and k in equation 3 we can write the wave
function associated with the free electron confined in a one dimensional box as
n x
n x A sin (5)
l
Energy of the particle (Electron)
We know from equation (2)

2mE
k2
2

2 2mE h2
k 2
 2
h 4 2
4 2
2
8 mE
k2 (6)
h2
Squaring equation (3) we get

2 n2 2
k (7)
l2
Equating (6) and (7), we can write
2
8 mE n2 2

h2 l2
n2h2
Energy of the particle (electron) En (8)
8ml 2
From equations (8) and (5) we can say that, for each value of ‘n’, there is
an energy level and the corresponding wave function.
Thus we can say that, each value of En is known as Eigen value and the
corresponding value of n is called Eigen function.

Energy levels of an electron

For various values of ‘n’ we get various energy values of the electron. The
lowest energy value or ground state energy value can be got by substituting n = 1 in
equation (8)

. – .Page 31

.
 .

h2
When n= 1 we get E1
8ml 2
Similarly we can get the other energy values

4h 2
When n= 2, we get E 2 4 E1
8ml 2
9h 2
When n =3, we get E3 9 E1
8ml 2
16 h 2
When n =3, we get E4 16 E1
8ml 2
In general we can write the energy Eigen function as

En n 2 E1 (9)
It is found that from the energy levels E1,E2,E3 etc the energy levels of an
electron are discrete.
This is the great success which is achieved in Quantum Mechanics than
classical mechanics, in which the energy levels are found to be continuous.
The various energy Eigen values and their corresponding Eigen functions of
an electron enclosed in a one dimensional box is as shown in the figure. Thus we
have discrete energy values.

. – .Page 32

.
 .

Normalization of the wave function

Normalization:
It is the process by which the probability (P) of finding the particle
(electron) inside the box can be done.
We know that the total probability (P) is equal to 1 means then there is
a particle inside the box.
For a one dimensional potential box of length ’l’ the probability
l
2
P dx 1 (10)
0

Substituting equation (5) in equation (10), we get

l
n x
P A 2 sin 2 dx 1
0
l
l
2 1 cos 2n x l
P A dx 1
0
2
l
x 1 sin 2n x l
A2 1
2 2 2n l 0

l 1 sin 2n l l
A2 1
2 2 2n l

l 1 sin 2n
A2 1 (11)
2 2 2n l
We know sin n π = 0 and sin2nπ is also 0
Equation 11 can be written as

A2l
1
2
2
A2
l
2
A
l
Substituting the Value of A in equation (5)

. – .Page 33

.
 .

2 n x
n x sin
l l

The normalized wave function and their energy values are as shown in the
figure.
The solution of one-dimensional potential box can be extended for a three
dimensional potential box. In a three dimensional potential box, the particle
(electron) can move in any direction in space. Therefore instead of one quantum
number ‘n’ , we have to use three quantum number nx,ny, nz corresponding to the
three coordinate axis x,y,z respectively
The energy of the particle = Ex + Ey+ Ez
2
2
nx h 2 ny h2 2
nz h 2
E x, y, z
8ma 2 8mb 2 8mc 2
If a=b=c for a cubical box

h2
E x, y, z 2
n x2 n y2 n z2
8ma
The corresponding normalized wave function of an electron in a cubical box
can be written as

2 2 2 n x ny y n z
nx ,n y nz sin x sin sin z
a a a a a a

8 nx x ny y nz z
nx ,n y nz sin sin sin
a3 a a a

3.12 DEGENERACY AND NON-DEGENERACY

Degeneracy:
It is seen from equation (3) and equation (3), for several combination of
quantum numbers we have same energy Eigen value but different Eigen functions.
Such states and energy levels are called Degenerate state.
The three combinations of quantum numbers (112), (121) and (211) which
gives same Eigen value but different Eigen functions are 3 fold degenerate state.
Example: nx =1 , ny =1 , nz =2
. – .Page 34

.
 .

2
Then nx n y2 nz2 6

Similarly for the other two combinations also it is 6 only.

6h 2
E112 E121 E211
8ma 2
The corresponding wave functions can be written as

8 x y 2 z
112 z 3
sin sin sin
a a a a

8 x 2 y z
121z 3
sin sin sin
a a a a

8 2 x y z
211z sin sin sin
a3 a a a

Non –degeneracy:
For various combinations of quantum number if we have same energy value
and same (one) Eigen function then such states and energy levels are called Non –
degenerate state.
Example:
nx 2, n y 2, n z 2,
12h 2
E 222 and
8ma 2
8 2 x 2 y 2 z
222 3
sin sin sin
a a a a

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
It is a type of microscope in which instead of light beam, a beam of electrons are
used to form a large image of very small object. These microscopes are widely used in the
field of engineering and medicine.
Principle:
A stream of electrons is passed through the object and the electron which carries the
information about the object are focused by electric and magnetic fields.

. – .Page 35

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.13

1.9.1 Assumptions (Postulates) of Quantum free electron

theory
1. In a metal the available free electrons are fully responsible for electrical
conduction.
2. The electrons move in a constant potential inside the metal. They cannot
come out from the metal surface have very high potential barrier.
3. Electrons have wave nature, the velocity and energy distribution of the electron
is given by Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
4. The loss of energy due to interaction of the free electron with the other free
electron.
5. Electron’s distributed in various energy levels according to Pauli Exclusion
Principle.

1.9.2 Advantages of Quantum free electron theory

1. This theory explains the specific heat capacity of materials.
2. This theory explains photo electric effect, Compton Effect and block body
radiation. etc.
3. This theory gives the correct mathematical expression for the thermal
conductivity of metals.

1.9.3 Drawbacks of Quantum free electron theory

1. This theory fails to distinguish between metal, semiconductor and Insulator.
2. It also fails to explain the positive value of Hall Co-efficient.
3. According to this theory, only two electrons are present in the Fermi level
and they are responsible for conduction which is not true.

.
 .

1.14 .

1.10 FERMI – DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

Statement
It is an expression for the distribution of electrons among the energy
levels as a function of temperature, the probability of finding an electron
in a particular energy state of energy E is given by

1
F(E) =
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 

Where, EF - Fermi energy (highest energy level of an electron)

KB - Boltzmann’s constant
T - Absolute temperature

1.10.1 Effect of Temperature on Fermi Function

Case 1:
AT = 0 K and E < E F

1 1
F(E) = 
1  exp (-) 1  0

F(E) = 1= 100 %
It means that 100% probability for the electrons to occupy the energy level
below the Fermi energy level.
Case 2:
AT = 0 K and E > E F

1 1 1
F(E) =   0
1  exp () 1   
F(E) = 0 = 0%
It means that 0% probability (electron) for the electrons to occupy the energy
level above the Fermi energy level.

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.15

Case 3 :
At T > 0K and E = EF
1 1 1
F(E) = = = = 0.5
1  exp (0) 1  1 2
F(E) = 0.5 = 50%
It means that 50% probability for the electrons to occupy the Fermi energy
level. (above Fermi energy level are empty and below Fermi energy level are filled).
At 0 K energy states above E F are empty and below E F are filled.

(a)At T=0K (b) at T>0K

Fig.1.5 Fermi Dirac distribution function

1.10.2 Fermi level, Fermi Energy and their importance

These are defined as the highest energy level filled by the electrons in that energy
level with higher energy values.
Fermi level : The Fermi level is the highest reference energy level of
a particle at absolute zero.
Importance : It is the reference energy level which separates the filled
energy levels and vacant energy levels.
Fermi energy (EF) : The Fermi energy is the maximum energy of the quantum
state corresponding to Fermi energy level at absolute
zero.
Importance : Fermi energy determines the energy of the particle at
any temperature.

.
 .

1.16 .

1.11 DENSITY OF STATES

A parameter of interest in the study of conductivity of metals and semiconductors
is the density of states.
The Fermi function F(E) gives only the probability of filling up of electrons in a
given energy state. It does not give the information about the number of electrons that
can be filled in a given energy state, to know that we should know the number of
available energy states called density of states.
Density of states is defined the as the number of energy states per unit
volume in an energy interval of a metal. It is use to calculate the number
of charge carriers per unit volume of any solid.

Number of energy states between E and E + dE

N(E) dE =
Volume of the metal

D(E) dE
N(E) dE = ... (1)
V

nz

dn
E+dE
E
n

O ny

nx
Fig.1.6 Positive octant of n space

Let us constant a sphere of radius “n” in space with quantum numbers n n , n y

and n z

n 2 = n 2x  n 2y  n z2

The sphere is further divided into many shells represents a particular combination
of quantum numbers and represents particular energy value.

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.17

Therefore, the number of energy states within a sphere of radius

4
n =  n3
3
Let us consider two energy values E and E + dE can be found by finding the
number of energy states between the shells of radius n and n+ dn from the origin.
Since the quantum numbers are positive integers, n values can be defined only in the
positive octant of the n – space.
The number of available energy states within the sphere of radius “n” due to one
octant.

1 4 
n    n3 
8 3 
Similarly the number of available energy states within the sphere of radius n+dn
corresponding energy.

1 4 3
n + dn =    n + dn  
8 3 
The number of available energy states between the shells of radius n and n + dn
(or) between the energy levels E and E + dE

1 4 3 4 
D (E) dE =    n + dn   n 3 
8 3 3 
The number of available energy states between the energy interval dE

1 4 
D (E) dE = 
8 3
 
 n 3 + dn 3 +3n 2dn+3n dn 2 – n 2 

Since the higher powers of dn is very small, dn2 and dn3 terms can be neglected.

1 4 
 D (E) dE = 
8 3
 
 3n 2 dn 

 

n 2dn
D (E) dE = ... (3)
2

.
 .

1.18 .

We know that the allowed energy values is

n 2h 2
E = ... (4)
8mL2
Differentiating equation (4) with respect to ‘n’

h2
dE = 2 ndn
8mL2

8mL2
ndn = dE ... (5)
2h 2

2 8mL2 E
From equation (4) n =
h2
1/2

n =
8mL2E 
1/2 ... (6)
 h2 
On substituting equation (6) and (5) in equation (3) we get,
n (ndn)
D (E) dE =
2
1/ 2



 8mL2 E  
8mL2
dE
D (E) dE =
2h 2
1/ 2
2
 
h2

3/ 2


8mL2  E1/ 2 dE

D (E) dE = 3/ 2
4
h2  

D (E) dE = 3
8m 3/ 2 L3E1/ 2 dE
4h
If volume of the metal, V = L3

D (E) dE = 3
8m 3/ 2 VE1/ 2 dE
4h

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.19

For unit volume of a metal,

V = 1m3
D(E) dE
From equation (1) N (E) dE =
V

Density of States, N (E) dE = 3
 8m 3/2 E1/2 dE  
4h
Each electron energy level can accommodate two electrons as per Pauli’s
exclusion principle. (Spin up and Spin down = 2 (e) × density of states).
N (E) dE = 2 × N(E) dE

N (E) dE = 2 x 3
8m 3/ 2 E1/ 2 dE F(E)
4h


N (E) dE = 3
8m 3/ 2 E1/ 2 dE F(E)
2h

1.11.1 Carrier concentration in metals

Let N(E) dE represents the number of filled energy states between the interval
of energy dE, normally all the energy states will not be filled
dN = N (E) dE F(E)

dN = 2 x 3
 8m 3/2 E1/ 2 dE F(E) ... (8)
4h
The actual number of electrons in dE,  F(E) = 1

dN = 3
8m 3/ 2 E1/ 2 dE
2h
Normally all the states are not filled states, filling of electrons is a given energy
state is given by Fermi-function F(E). Let dn represents the number of filled energy
states.
In this case of material of absolute zero the upper occupied level is EF and for
all the levels below EF, F(E)=1 (at T = 0 K the maximum energy level that can be
occupied by the electron is called Fermi energy level EF T = 0 K F(E) = 1).
Integrating equation (8) within the limits 0 to EF us can get the number of energy
0
states of electron (N)

.
 .

1.20 .

N E Fo

 dN =  3
8m 3/2 E1/2 dE
0 0 2h

E
  E3/2  Fo
N = 3
8m3/2  
 3/2 
2h 0


N = 3
 8m 3/ 2 E 3/F 2 ... (9)
3h o

 3 
E3F/ 2  3Nh 
=  3/ 2 
0
  
 8m 

2/3
 3Nh 3  h 2  3N 
2/3
EF =    ... (10)
0    8m 3 / 2  8m   
 

Hence the Fermi energy of a metal depends only on the density of electrons of
that metal.

1.11.2 Average energy of an electron at 0 K

Average energy of electron

Total energy of the electrons at 0 K (E T )

Eavg = ... (11)
Number of energy states at 0 K (N)

Total energy of   Number of energy   Energy of 

= 
electrons at 0 K (E T )    
 States at 0 K   electron 

E Fo

ET =  N (E) dE E
0

E Fo
2
=  3
8m 3/2 E1/2 E dE
0 4h

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.21

EFo
2 3/2
ET = 8m  E3/2 dE
3
4h 0

E Fo
5/ 2 
 3/2  E
= 8m   
2h 3  5 / 2  0

2  3/ 2
=  3  8m E5/ F
2
5 2h o


ET = 3
8m 3/ 2 E5/Fo2 ... (12)
5h

Substitute equation (12) and (9) in equation (11)


3
8m 3 / 2 E5Fo/ 2
E avg = 5h

3
8m 3 / 2 E Fo 3 / 2
3h
The average of  3
  Eavg = EF
electron at 0K is  5 o

1.12 WORK FUNCTION

It is defined as the minimum energy required to remove an electron from
the metal surface at absolute zero (0 K) is called as work function.

1.12.1 Explanation
Let EF be the maximum energy of an electron called Fermi energy and EB be the
energy of the metal barrier surface.
1. If we supply energy EB greater than EF, then no of electron escapes from the
metal.
2. In order to make it to escape, an additional amount of energy equal to
(E B – E F ) is required. i.e., EB + (EB – EF )

.
 .

CONDUCTING MATERIALS 1.29

8. F r ee el ect r on d en si t y of al u m i n u m i s 18.1 × 10 28m –3 Calculate its

Fermi energy at 0 K. [Planck’s constant and mass of free electron are
6.62 × 10–34Js, and 9.1 × 10–34Kg] (AU - JUNE 2012)
Solution:
Given data:
Planck’s constant h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js
Mass of electron m = 9.1 × 10–34 Kg
Electron density N = 18.1 × 1028 m–3
2/3
 3N  h2
Fermi energy at 0 K  
E Fo = 
   8m
2/3 
 3  18.1 × 1028  34 2 
 EFo =    (6.62 × 10 ) 
 3.14   8  9.1 × 1031 
 
2/3
= 
1.7292 × 1029   6.019  1038
EFo = 1.8689 × 10–18 J

1.8689  1018
(or) EFo = eV
1.6  1019
Fermi energy at 0 K EFo = 11.68 eV
9. The Fermi temperature of a metal is 24600 K. Calculate the Fermi velocity.
(AU - NOV 2003)
Solution:
Given data:
Temperature = 24600 K
The relation between Fermi energy, Fermi velocity and Fermi temperature is given by
3 1
EF = K BTF = mV 2F
2 2
3K BTF 31.38x1023 x24600
VF = =
m 9.11x1031
3 1
Fermi velocity VF = 863.30  10 ms

.
 .

1.30 .

10. Use the Fermi distribution function to obtain the value of F(E) for
E – EF = 0.01 eV at 200K.
Solution:
Given data:

1
Fermi Function F (E) =
1  e
E  E F  / K BT

Boltzman constant KB = 1.38 × 10–23 JK–1

E –EF = 0.01 eV = 0.01 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 1.6 × 10–21J
T = 200 K

1
F (E) =
1 e
1.6 × 10 21

/ 1.38 × 1023  200 
1
=
1  e0.5797

1 1
= 
1  1.7855 2.7855
Fermi function F (E) = 0.3589
11. Calculate the drift velocity of the free electrons (with a mobility of
3.5 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1) in copper for an electric field strength of 0.5 V m–1.
Solution:
Given data:
Mobility  = 3.5 × 10–3 m2 V–1 s–1
Electric field strength = 0.5 vm –1
Drift Velocity, Vd = E
= 3.5 × 10–3 × 0.5
= 1.75 × 10–3 ms–1

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1.32 .

15. Calculate the Fermi energy of copper at 0 K if the concentration of electron

is 8.5 × 1028 m–3 . (AU - JUNE 2010)
Solution:
Electron density n = 8.5 × 1028 m–3

2/3
h 2  3N 
Fermi energy at 0 K (E Fo ) =
8m   

2/3
(6.62 × 1034 ) 2  3 × 8.5 × 1028 
=  
8 × 9.1 × 1031  3.14 

= 6.019 × 1038  (8.121 × 1028 ) 2 / 3

= 6.019 × 1038  1.875 × 1019

E Fo = 1.1287 × 1018J

1.1287 × 1018
E Fo = eV
1.6 × 1019

E Fo = 7.05 eV

16. The mobility of electrons in copper 3×103m2 V–1 s–1 assuming e=1.6×10–19C
and me=9.1×10–31 kg. Calculate the mean collision time. (AU - JUN.2009)
Solution:
Given data:
Mobility of electrons in copper µ = 3×103m2V–1s–1
Charge of electrons e = 6×10 –19C
Mass of electrons me= 9.1×10–31 kg

ne 2 
Electrical conductivity =
m

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1.40 .

21. Define Fermi level, Fermi energy and this importance.

(AU - June 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, Dec 2012)
Fermi level : The Fermi level is the highest reference energy level of a particle
at absolute zero.
Importance : It is the reference energy level which separates the filled energy
level and vacant energy levels.
Fermi energy: It is the maximum energy of the quantum state corresponding
to Fermi energy level at absolute zero.
Importance : Fermi energy determines the energy of the particle at any
temperature.
22. Define Fermi Distribution function. (AU - June 2010)
It is an expression for the distribution of electrons among the energy levels as a
function of temperature and it is the probability of finding an electron in particular
energy state of energy E is given by,
1
F(E) 
 E  EF 
1  exp  
 K BT 
23. Define density of states and its importance. (AU - May 2008, June 2010)
Density of states is defined the as the number of energy states per unit volume in
an energy interval of a metal. It is use to calculate the number of charge carriers
per unit volume of any solid.

Number of energy states between E and E + dE

N (E) dE =
Volume of metal
Importance : It is used for the Fermi energy calculation at any temperature.
24. Define work function
It is define as the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the metal
surface at 0K. in order to make it escape, an additional amount of energy equal
to is required. i.e., .This difference in energy is called Work function.

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ANNA UNIVERSITY PART B QUESTIONS

1. Define Compton Effect? Derive an expression for the wavelength of the scattered
photon. (Refer Page-11- Page 16.)
(Or) Explain Compton Effect and derive an expression for the wavelength of the
scattered photon. (Refer Page-11- Page 16.)
(Or)Derive an expression for the change in wavelength suffered by an X- ray photon
when it collides with an electron. (Refer Page-11- Page 16.)
2. Arrive at the time independent Schrödinger wave equation and explain the
significance of the wave function Ψ. (Refer Page no 23-25 3.8 and page no 27 3.10
for Ψ).
3. Arrive at Schrödinger wave equation and apply the same for a particle in a
rectangular box to obtain the energy Eigen values and the corresponding Eigen
functions. (Refer Page no 23-25 3.8 and Page no: 28-33 3.11).
Or solve Schrödinger wave equation for a particle in a box (one dimensional) and
obtain the energy values. (Refer Page no 23-25 3.8 and Page no: 28-33 3.11).
3. Explain the terms emissive power and absorptive power. Derive Planck’s law for
black body radiation and hence deduce Wien’s law and Raleigh law?
TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Explain Planck’s hypothesis or what the postulates of Planck’s quantum
theory?
Or what are the assumptions of quantum theory of black body radiation?
a. The electrons in the black body are assumed as simple harmonic oscillators.
b. The oscillators will not emit energy continuously.
c. They emit radiation in terms of quanta of magnitude ‘hγ’, discretely.
E = nhγ where n= 1, 2, 3, 3,…..
2. What is Compton wavelength? Give its value.
The shift in wavelength corresponding to the scattering angle of 900 is
called
Compton wavelength.
h
1 cos .
m0 c
3. What is physical significance of wave function?

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a. The probability of finding a particle in space, at any given instant of time is

characterized by a function Ψ(x, y, z) called wave-function.
b. It relates the particle and the wave statistically.
c. It gives the information about the particle behavior.
d. It is a complex quantity.
2
e. Represents the probability density of the particle, which is real and

positive.
3. What do you understand by the term wave function?
Wave function is a variable quantity that is associated with a moving
particle at any position (x, y, z) and at any time‘t’. It relates the probability of finding
the particle at that point and at that time.
Since is a complex quantity, it has no meaning and hence the probability
2 *
function is found, which is real and positive and has physical meaning

which is a measurable quantity too.

5. Define Eigen value and Eigen function.

Eigen value is defined as energy of the particle and is denoted by the letter En.
Eigen function is defined as the wave function of the particle and is denoted
by the letter n .
6. What is meant by degenerate and non-degenerate state? Give examples.
Degenerate state: for various combinations of quantum numbers if we get
same Eigen value (Energy levels) but different Eigen functions, then it is called
degenerate state.
Non- degenerate state: for various combinations of quantum numbers if we
get same Eigen values (Energy levels) and same Eigen functions, then it is called
Non- Degenerate state.
7. Mention the applications of electron microscope.
a. It has a very wide area of applications in the field of biology, metallurgy,
physics, chemistry, medicine, and engineering.
b. It is used to determine the complicated structures of crystals.
c. It is used in the study of celluloids.
d. It is used to study the structure of microorganisms such as virus, bacteria etc.

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8. What is meant by energy spectrum of a black body? What do you infer from it?
The distribution of energy for various wavelengths at various temperatures is
known as energy spectrum of a black body.
INFERENCE:
a. When temperature increases, the wavelength decreases.
b. The total energy emitted at any particular temperature can be found with the
help of the area traced by the curve.
9. Define Stefan-Boltzmann’s law.
Stefan- Boltzmann Law
According to this law the radiant energy (E) of the body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the temperature (T) of the body.

E T4
E T4
2 5 K B4
Where = Stefan Constant, given by
15 h 3 c 2
10 Define Wien’s displacement law.
Wien’s displacement law:
This law states that the product of then wavelength m corresponding to the
maximum energy and the absolute temperature (T) is a constant.

m T Cons tan t

This law shows that, as the temperature increases, the wavelength

corresponding to maximum energy decreases.
Wien also showed that the maximum energy (Emax) is directly proportional to
the fifth power of the absolute temperature.

E m ax T5
E m ax Cons tantT 5
By deducing this law he obtained a law called Wien’s law of distribution of
energy (Eλ), given by
5 C2 T
E C1 e

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 .

hc
Where C1 and C2 are constants given by C1 8 hc and C 2
KB
11. Define Raleigh- Jeans law.
Raleigh Jeans law:
According to this law, the energy distribution is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature and is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wavelength.
It is governed by the equation
8 K BT
E 4

Where KB is Boltzmann Constant.

12. What are the applications of Schroedinger wave equations?
1. It is used to find the electrons in the metal
2. It is used to find the energy levels of an electron in an infinite deep
potential well.
13. What is black body and what are its characteristics?
A perfect black body is the one which absorbs and also emits the radiations
completely.
In practice no body is perfectly black. We have to coat the black color over
the surface to make a black body.
Black body is said to be a perfect absorber, since it absorbs all the
wavelengths of the incident radiation. The black body is a perfect radiator, because it
radiates the entire wavelength absorbed by it. This phenomenon is called black body
radiation
13. Write down the one dimensional scherodinger time independent equation and
write the same for a free particle.
The one dimensional schroedinger time independent wave equation is given
by

d2 2m
E V 0
dx 2 2
For a free particle, the potential energy is zero i.e., V = 0. Therefore the Schrodinger
equation becomes

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 .

d2 2m
E 0
dx 2 2
15. define normalization process and write down the normalized wave function for an
electron in a one dimensional potential well of length’ a’ meters.
Normalization is the process by which the probability of finding a particle
inside any potential well can be done.For a one dimensional potential well of length’
a’ meter the normalized function is given by
2 n x
n sin
a a
16. Differentiate between Optical Microscope and electron microscope.
OPTICAL ELECTRON
S.NO MICROSCOPE MICROSCOPE
In the case of optical In this case, the source is
1. microscope, the source an electron gun
is an incandescent lamp
It is employing a lens It is employing magnetic
2. system to focus the or electric lens system to
light rays focus electron beam
No vacuum is needed This microscope will be
3. working in vacuum only
Possible magnification More than 1,00,00 times
4. is 2000 times the size magnification is possible
of the object
Cost is low Cost is high
5.
Compact in size Larger in size.
6.

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