HEAT TRANSFER

Introduction to Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is defined as the transfer of energy from one surface to another surface due to
temperature difference.

Heat transfer not only explains how heat may be transferred, but also predicts the rate at which
the exchange takes place.

The heat transfer plays very important role in engineering applications.

Examples are design of boilers, heaters, refrigerators, heat exchangers, bearings, Electrical M/Cs,
transformers, Insulation of cables, etc.

Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer takes place from one surface/fluid to another surface/fluid by three modes. They
are

1. Conduction 2. Convection and 3. Radiation

1 Conduction Heat Transfer

In this method the heat transfer takes place from one part of the surface to another part of the
surface with the direct molecular contact and without movement of the molecules. The
conduction heat transfer is governed by FOURIER's law.

Example: Heating of metallic rod from one end.

In solids, the heat is conducted by two mechanisms:

(i) By lattice vibrations: The faster moving molecules or atoms in the hottest part
of the body transfer heat by impacts some of their energy to the adjacent molecules.

(ii) By transport of free electrons:

2 Convection heat transfer

In this case the heat transfer takes place with the actual movement of molecules. When the fluid
flows over the hot surface, convection heat transfer takes place. The heat flow depends on the
property of fluid and independent on the properties of metal surface. Convection heat transfer is
governed by NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING.

Example: Heating of water in a metallic vessel.

Convection heat transfer may be subdivided into two types:

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1. Free convection and

2. Forced convection

In Free convection or Natural convection heat transfer, the motion of the fluid is caused by
density difference between hot and cold potions.

In Forced heat transfer, the motion of the fluid is caused by some mechanical means such as a
fan, pump or blower.

3 Radiation heat transfer

In this the heat transfer takes place from one surface to another surface in the form of radiant
energy. Here no material or medium is required for the heat flow. Radiation heat transfer can
happen in vacuum also. Radiation heat transfer is governed by STEPHAN BOLTZMAN LAW.
All solids, liquids and gasses radiate heat energy.

Example: Heat received by earth from SUN.

Fourier’s law of heat conduction

The rate of heat flow through the solid is proportional to the surface area perpendicular to the
direction of heat flow and change in temperature with respect to the length (temperature
gradient)

i.e. QX α A 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
. QX = - K A

QX = heat flow through a body per unit time (Watts)

W

m−K
K= Thermal conductivity of the material

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A = Surface area (m2)

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𝑑
𝑇 = temperature gradient
𝑑
𝑥

- ve sign indicates that the heat transfer always occurs towards decreasing temperature gradient

Newton’s law of cooling

The rate equation for the convective heat transfer between a surface and an adjacent fluid is
given by Newton’s law of cooling.

Q = hS A [TS-Tf]

Where,

Q= Convective heat transfer (Watts)

A = Surface area exposed to heat transfer (m2)

TS = Surface temperature (K)

Tf = Fluid temperature (K)

h = Heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2 K)

Stefan Boltzmann law

This law states that the emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature.

Q α T4

The radiation heat exchange between the two bodies is given by

Q = € A1 F12 σ [T14 – T24]

Q= Convective heat transfer (Watts)

A = Surface area exposed to heat transfer (m2)
F = Shape factor

σ = Steafan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8

T1 and T2 = Surface temperature (K)

€ = Emissivity of surface

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Thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity of a material is defined as the amount of heat energy transferred through a
body of unit area and unit thickness in unit time when a unit temperature difference is
maintained.
W

m−K
Its unit is

Thermal conductivity (a property of material) depends on

1) Material structure 2) Density of material and 3) Operating

condition (pressure & temperature)

Convective heat transfer co-efficient or Film heat transfer coefficient

The convective heat transfer coefficient between a surface and an adjacent fluid is predicted by
Newton’s law of cooling, Q = hS A [TS-Tf]

The convective heat transfer coefficient may be defined as “the amount of heat convected
W
between the surface of unit area and fluid in the unit time when unit temperature difference is

m2−K
maintained between them”. Its unit is

Convective heat transfer coefficient depends on:

1. Thermodynamic and transport properties (density, specific heat, velocity, etc.)

2. Nature of flow (laminar or turbulent)
3. Geometry of the surface.

Steady state and Unsteady state heat transfer

Heat transfer through any material or medium be steady or unsteady.

𝑑𝑇
Steady state means there is no variation of surface temperature with time. i.e
𝑑𝑡 =0
Example: 1. Heat transfer to the water in a boiler tubes from hot gases

2 Heat transfer from hot fluid to cold fluid in heat exchanger

Unsteady state (Transient) means there is variation of surface temperature with time. i.e 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑡 ≠0
Example: Cooling of a cup of coffee kept in air.

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Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions specify the temperature or the heat flow at the surface of the body.
Appropriate boundary conditions are required for the analysis of heat conduction problems.
Boundary conditions may be prescribed in three ways:

1. Boundary conditions of first kind [prescribed surface temperature]

2. Boundary conditions of second kind [prescribed heat flux boundary]
3. Boundary conditions of third kind [convection boundary conditions]

Boundary conditions of first kind [prescribed surface temperature] (variable

values specified at boundaries)

If the temperature at the surface or the boundary is known, the resulting boundary condition is
called as boundary condition of first kind.

Consider a plate of thickness L as shown in figure, such that at X= 0, T=T1

X= L, T=T2

The plate is said to be prescribed temperature boundary condition at both the surfaces. And these
boundary conditions are written as:

At X= 0, T(x,t) = T(0,t) = T1

At X= L, T(x,t) = T(L,t) = T2

In general, the distribution of temperature at the boundary surface may be specified as a function
of position and time.

Similar considerations are applicable for boundary conditions at the surface of cylinder and
sphere.

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Boundary condition of kind second [Prescribed heat flux boundary] (second

type derivative specified)
In many practical situations, heat flux is specified rather than the temperature. The resulting
boundary condition is known as boundary condition of second kind or heat flux boundary
condition.

Example: Electrically heated surface in which the heat flow entering the solid is known.

) = - k 𝑑𝑇
Q
At X= 0, (
𝑑𝑥
A
0

For cylinders and spheres, the coordinate x is replaced by r

Boundary condition of third kind [Convection boundary condition] (mixed

condition)
When the boundary surface is subjected to a convective heat transfer, the boundary condition is
called boundary condition of 3rd kind or convective boundary condition.

The mathematical formulation is obtained by considering an energy balance at surface X=0 i.e.

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𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒
[ ] = [ 𝑋 = 0 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑎𝑡 𝑇1 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑋 = 0 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ]

𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑥
h1 (T1-Tx) at X=0 = - k

If a fluid at a temperature T2 with a heat transfer coefficient h flows over the surface at x=L, the
energy balance is,

𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑥
h2 (T2-Tx) at X=0 = k

General heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates (rectangular

coordinate)
Consider the differential element (dx,dy,dz) located (arbitrarily) with in a solid material as
shown. Assume that there is heat generation in the material due to some cause. ( Ex: flowing of
electric current) at the rate of Qg units.

According to Fourier’s law, the heat conducted into and out of six faces of the differential
elements are dQx, dQx+dx, dQy, dQy+dy, dQz and dQz+dz.

dQx = - Kx 𝛿
𝑇 dy dz
𝛿
𝑥

According to Taylor series,

𝛿(𝑑𝑄𝑥) 𝛿2(𝑑𝑄 𝛿3(𝑑𝑄𝑥)
𝑥)
dQ(x+dx) = dQx + dx + + 𝛿𝑥
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𝛿𝑥2 𝛿𝑥3
dx + -------
dx +

Neglecting higher order terms, dQ(x+dx) 𝛿(𝑑𝑄𝑥)

𝛿𝑥
= dQx + dx

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𝛿𝑇
𝛿𝑇 𝛿[− Kx dy dz]
𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
dQ(x+dx) = - Kx dy dz + dx

𝛿𝑇 𝛿2𝑇

𝛿𝑥
dy dz - Kx[
𝛿𝑥2
i.e = - Kx
dy dz]dx
Quantity of heat conducted into the element in the x-direction = dQx – dQ(x+dx)

𝛿𝑇 𝛿𝑇 𝛿2 𝑇

𝛿𝑥2
= - Kx dy dz + dy dz + dy dz]
dx
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
Kx Kx[

𝛿2𝑇
= Kx

𝛿𝑥 2
dx dy 𝛿2𝑇
dz

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𝛿𝑦2
Similarly, heat conducted along Y- direction = Ky
dx dy dz
𝛿2𝑇
𝛿𝑧2
And along z-direction, Kz dx dy dz

∴ Total amount of heat conducted into the element per unit time,

𝜹𝟐𝑻 𝜹𝟐𝑻 𝜹𝟐𝑻

+ + Kz
𝜹𝒙𝟐 𝜹𝒚𝟐 𝜹𝒛𝟐
Qc = [ Kx
Ky ] dx dy dz

Quantity of heat generated in in the differential element per unit time per unit volume

Q = Qg dx dy dz

The rate of change of internal energy of the element, ∆𝐸 = m x Cp 𝑑𝑇

𝑑𝑡
x

𝒅𝑻
= ( dx dy dz) . Cp
. 𝒅𝒕 dt

According to first law of thermodynamics, Q = W + ∆𝐸

Qconducted + Q generated = Rate of change of IE

𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝒅𝑻
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
] dx dy dz dt + Qg dx dy dz dt = ( 𝝆 dx dy dz) x Cp x
𝜹𝒛𝟐 𝒅𝒕
[Kx
𝜹𝒙𝟐 𝜹𝒚𝟐
+ +
Ky Kz dt

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𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝒅𝑻
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝝆 x Cp x
𝜹𝒙𝟐 𝜹𝒚𝟐 𝜹𝒛𝟐 𝒅𝒕...........
Kx + Ky + Kz + Qg = (1)

This is the required three dimensional, differential equation for non homogenous, self heat
generating and unsteady state heat flow

For homogenous material, Kx = Ky =Kz =K. Then equation (1) reduces to

𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝒅𝑻
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
𝝆 x Cp x
𝜹𝒙𝟐 𝜹𝒚𝟐 𝜹𝒛𝟐 𝒅𝒕
K{ + + }+ Qg =
𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝐐 𝟏 𝒅𝑻
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝐠
𝒎𝟐
𝐊

𝜹𝒚𝟐 𝐊 𝒅𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄
=
𝜹𝒙𝟐
𝛒
Where, α =
𝜹𝒛𝟐
Thermal diffusivity in
𝛂
{ }
+ 𝐂𝐩
+ +
In the absence of heat generation, the above equation reduces to
𝟐
𝑻 𝜹𝟐𝑻 𝜹𝟐𝑻 𝟏 𝒅𝑻
𝜹
𝜹𝒙 𝜹𝒚 𝜹𝒛 𝛂
+ + = ……
(2) This is diffusion equation.

𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒅𝒕

If the heat transfer is steady state, i.e 𝒅

𝑻 = 0, then
𝒅
𝒕
𝜹 𝑻𝟐 𝟐
𝜹 𝑻 𝟐
𝜹 𝑻
+ + = 0 …….
𝜹𝒙𝟐 𝜹𝒚𝟐
(3) This is Laplace equation

𝜹𝒛𝟐

Heat conduction equation in polar coordinate:

𝜹
𝟏
𝟏𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝐐 𝟏 𝒅𝑻
𝜹
𝑻 𝜹 𝑻 𝑻 𝐠
{
𝒓 𝜹𝒓
(𝒓 ) � �
𝜹𝜽𝟐
+
� 𝒓𝟐
�
+
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𝛂 𝒅𝒕
𝐊
=
𝜹𝒛𝟐
}+

Heat conduction equation in Spherical coordinates:

𝜹 (𝒓𝑻)
𝟏𝟐 𝟏 𝑻
𝜹 𝟏𝟐 𝐐 𝟏 𝒅𝑻
𝜹
𝜹 𝑻 𝐠
(𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝝍 )+
𝜹𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝝍 𝜹𝝍 𝐊 𝒅𝒕
=
𝒓 𝜹𝝍
+
𝜹ø𝟐
{
𝛂
}
𝒓𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 ø
+

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Thermal resistance
It is equal to the amount of heat restricted by a particular solid. Its unit is K/W. The main
advantage of introducing the concept of thermal resistance is that the rule for combining
electrical resistances I series analog sly applies to thermal resistance in series.

(𝑇1−𝑇 KA
2) for a plane wall, Q= (T1−T2)
Rth =
𝑄 𝐿

i.e Rth = (𝑇1−𝑇2)

KA
(T1−T2)
𝐿

∴ Rth 𝐋
𝐊
=
𝐀

One dimensional steady state heat conduction without heat generation

through
Case (i) a Plane wall

The general heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinate is

𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝐐 𝟏 𝒅𝑻
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻 𝐠

𝜹𝒚𝟐 𝐊 𝒅𝒕
=
𝜹𝒙𝟐 𝜹𝒛𝟐 𝛂
{ }
+ + +

Assumptions are:

1. Steady state heat transfer, i.e 𝑑𝑇

𝑑𝑡 =0
𝛿𝑇 𝛿𝑇
2. No heat generation i.e. Qg=0

𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑧
3. One dimensional i.e = =0
4. Uniform thermal conductivity i.e Kx= Ky =Kz= K

𝜹𝟐𝑻

𝜹𝒙𝟐
Then the governing equation reduces to =0

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 𝑑𝑇
HEAT TRANSFER

𝑑
On integration, = C1 (a constant)

𝑥
Again integrating, T = C1 x + C2----------------eq(1)

Where C1 and C2 are constants, can be evaluated using boundary conditions.

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The boundary conditions are (i) at x=0, T=T1 and

(ii) at x=L, T=T2

Substituting the first boundary condition in equation (1),

T1= C1. 0 + C2 ∴ C2 =T1

Substituting the second boundary condition in equation (1),

∴
(𝑇2−𝑇1)
T2= C1 L + T1
C2 = �
�

Substituting C1 and C2 in eq (1), we get

(𝑻𝟏−𝑻𝟐)
T= 𝑳 x + T1
This equation gives the temperature distribution along the length of the slab.

To find the heat transfer, consider the Fourier equation,

QX = - K A (𝑇2−𝑇
1)
𝐿

Qx = 𝑇1−𝑇2 ∆𝑇
=𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ
⁄𝐾𝐴

𝐿⁄
Where, Rth = 𝐾𝐴

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Case (ii) Composite wall

∆𝑇 (𝑇1−𝑇4)
Heat transfer, Q = =
𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
+ 𝐴2
𝐾1 𝐴1 𝐾2 +𝐾3 𝐴3

Overall heat transfer Coefficient [U]

The overall heat transfer coefficient, or U-value, refers to how well heat is conducted
through over a series of resistant mediums. Its units are the W/(m 2°C) or W/(m2°K)

The overall heat transfer coefficient is employed in calculating the rate of heat
transfer from one fluid at an average bulk temperature T1 through a solid
surface to a second fluid at an average bulk temperature T o

Overall heat transfer, Q = U A ∆𝑻

Q = U A (Ti –To)...............(1)

Where U is overall heat transfer coefficient

Consider a composite wall exposed to hot fluid and cold fluid as shown below:

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Heat transfer from inside hot fluid to outside cold fluid through a series of resistant mediums
(convective and conductive) is given by
∆𝑇
𝑅𝑡ℎ
Heat transfer, Q =

(𝑇𝑖−𝑇
𝐿1 𝐿3
1 𝑜) 1 ..............(2)
𝐿2
Q=
+ + + +
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝐾1𝐴1 𝐾2 𝐴2 𝐾3 𝐴3 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

Comparing the equations (1) and (2), we get,

(𝑇𝑖−𝑇𝑜)
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿3 1
1 2
U A (Ti –To) =

1
+ + + +
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 𝐾1𝐴1 𝐾2 𝐴2 𝐾3 𝐴3 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

If surface area is same then, Ai = A1=A2=A3=Ao, then

𝟏
𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟑
+
U= W/(m2°K)

+ + + 𝟏
𝒉𝒊 𝑲 𝑲 𝑲 𝒉
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝒐

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One dimensional steady state heat conduction without heat generation

through

Case (i) a Cylinder

Heat conduction equation in cylinder is given by

𝜹
𝟏
𝟏𝟐 𝜹𝟐 𝐐 𝟏 𝒅𝑻
𝜹
𝑻 𝜹 𝑻 𝑻 𝐠

𝜹𝒓)
(𝒓
𝒓 𝜹𝜽
𝒓 𝜹𝒓 𝟐
𝐊 𝒅𝒕
{ =
𝜹𝒛𝟐 𝛂
}
Assumptions are: 𝟐
+ + +

1. Steady state heat transfer, i.e 𝑑𝑇

𝑑𝑡 =0
2. No heat generation i.e. Qg=0

3. One dimensional𝛿𝑇
= 𝛿𝑇 = 0
i.e
𝛿𝜃 𝛿𝑧
4. Uniform thermal conductivity i.e Kr= Kθ =Kz= K

)= 0
𝜹𝑻
Then the general heat conduction equation reduces to

𝟏 (𝒓
𝜹
𝒓 𝜹𝒓
𝜹𝒓

)= 0
𝜹 𝜹𝑻
(𝒓
𝜹𝒓 𝜹𝒓
i.e

𝛿𝑇
On integration, 𝑟 = C1
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𝛿𝑟

𝛿 𝐶1
i.e. 𝑇 =
𝑟
𝛿
𝑟

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 HEAT TRANSFER

Again integrating, T = C1 + ln r + C2 ……(1)

Boundary conditions are (i) at r= r1, T = T1

(ii) at r = r2, T= T2
Substituting first and second boundary conditions we get,

T1= C1 ln r1 + C2 ……(a)

T2 = C1 ln r2 +C2 …….(b)
Subtracting eq (b) from eq (a) we get,

(T1 –T2) = C1 ln 𝑟1
𝑟2

C1 = (𝑇1−𝑇
2)
𝑟1
𝑙𝑛𝑟2

C2 = T1 (𝑇1−𝑇
- 2) ln r1
𝑟1
𝑙𝑛𝑟2

Substituting C1 and C2 in Eq (1), we get

(𝑻𝟏−𝑻 (𝑻𝟏−𝑻
𝟐) ln r + T1 - 𝟐) ln r1
𝒍𝒏𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟏
𝒍𝒏
T=
𝒓𝟐
𝒓𝟐

This equation gives the temperature distribution along the radius of the cylinder.

To find Heat Transfer

𝜹 𝛿 (𝑇1−𝑇
𝑻 But, 𝑇 𝐶1
2)
𝑟1
Q = -K
𝜹 𝛿 𝑟 𝑙𝑛
=
𝒓 𝑟 𝑟
A
=
𝑟2 2 πK l (T1 –T2)
(𝑇1−𝑇
2)
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 (𝑇1−𝑇2)
HEAT TRANSFER

𝑟1 1
𝑟 𝑙𝑛 𝑟 𝑟2
Q = - K (2 πrL) = =
1
𝑙𝑛𝑟2 2
ln
-
𝑟2
πK 𝑟1
L
𝑟2
where, Rth = ln 𝑟1
2 πK
L
Q=
∆𝑇
𝑅𝑡
ℎ

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Case (ii) Composite Cylinder

Heat transfer through a composite cylinder, Q = Q ∆𝑇

= 𝑅𝑡ℎ

(𝑇1−𝑇4)
𝑟2 𝑟4
ln ln ln
Q=
𝑟3
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3
2 πK 2 πK 2 πK L
L L

If the inner cylinder is exposed to hot fluid and outer cylinder is exposed to cold fluid, then

(𝑇𝑖−𝑇𝑜)
1 ln 𝑟2
ln ln 𝑟4
Q=
𝑟3 1
+ 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 +
ℎ𝑖 2 πK 2 πK 2 πK ho 2 πro L
2𝜋𝑟𝑖𝐿 L L
L

(𝑇𝑖−𝑇𝑜)2 𝜋 𝐿
𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟4
ln ln
Q=
1 ln
+ 𝑟1
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𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + 1
+
K K3 ho ro
ℎ𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2

K1

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Overall heat transfer coefficient [U]

Heat conduction through composite cylinder exposed to hot and cold fluid is given by
(𝑇𝑖−𝑇𝑜)2 𝜋 𝐿
𝑟2 𝑟3
ln ln
Q=
𝑟4
…….. (1)

1 ln 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + 1
+ +
𝑟1
K2 K3 ho ro
ℎ𝑖 𝑟𝑖
K1

Also overall heat transfer is given by Q – U A ∆𝑇

Q = U A (Ti – To) ……(2)

Comparing the equations (1) and (2), we get

(𝑇𝑖−𝑇𝑜)2 𝜋 𝐿
𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟4
ln ln
U A (Ti – To)

ln 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + 1
=
1 +
𝑟1 +
K2 K3 ho ro
ℎ𝑖 𝑟𝑖
K1

(𝑇𝑖−𝑇𝑜) 2 𝜋 𝐿
U 2 π r L (Ti –To) = 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟4
1 ln ln ln
+ 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + 1
𝑟1 +
K2 ho ro
ℎ𝑖 𝑟𝑖
K1 K3

Case (i) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer area

1
𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟4
ln ln
ln 1
Uo =
𝑟1𝑜
+𝑟 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 }+
𝑜 {
ℎ𝑖 K2 K3 ho
𝑟𝑖 K1

Case (ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer area

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1
𝑟2
ln ln 𝑟4
𝑟3
Ui =
1+𝑟 ln 1 𝑟𝑜
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 }+
ℎ 𝑖 { K2 ho 𝑟𝑖
𝑖
K1
K3

In general Uo is more common.

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One dimensional steady state heat conduction without heat generation

through
(i) A Sphere

The general heat conduction equation in spherical coordinate is

𝟏
𝜹 𝟏 𝟏 𝜹 𝟏 𝜹𝟐 𝐐 𝟏 𝒅𝑻
𝜹𝑻
𝟐 𝜹 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻 𝐠
𝒓𝟐 𝜹𝒓
) (𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝝍
𝜹𝝍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐ø 𝜹ø𝟐
(𝒓 𝜹𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜹𝝍 𝐊 𝒅𝒕
=
𝒓
𝟐 𝝍 𝒓 𝛂

)+
+ +

𝟐
Assumptions are:

1. Steady state heat transfer, i.e 𝑑𝑇

𝑑𝑡 =0

𝛿𝑇
2. No heat generation i.e. Qg=0

= 𝛿𝑇 = 0
𝛿ø 𝛿𝜓
3. One dimensional i.e

)=0
Uniform thermal conductivity i.e Kr= Kø =Kψ= K
𝜹𝑻
4.

𝟏 𝜹
Then the general heat conduction equation reduces to (𝒓𝟐
𝒓𝟐 𝜹𝒓
)=0 because, 𝟏
𝛿 𝛿𝑇
(𝑟2
𝜹𝒓
≠
0
𝛿 𝛿 𝒓𝟐
𝑟 𝑟
𝛿𝑇
On integration, 𝑟2
𝛿𝑟
= C1

𝛿𝑇 𝐶1
𝛿 =𝑟2
𝑟
−C1

r
Again integrating, T = +C
2 ……….(1)

Boundary conditions are

(i) at r=r1, T=T1

(ii) at r=r2, T=T1

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−C1 −C1
+
r2
T1 = +C
2 and T2 = 2

r1
C

−C1 C1
+ [ 𝑟1−𝑟2]
T1 –T2
= =

r1 r2 𝑟1𝑟2
C
1

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[ 𝑇1−𝑇2] C1
∴ C1 𝑟1𝑟2
𝑟− r1
and C2 = T1 +
1 𝑟2
=

∴ C2 = T 1
[ 𝑇1−𝑇2] 𝑟1𝑟2
𝑟1− 𝑟2 𝑟1
+

Substituting C1 and C2 in eq (1)

−[ 𝑇1−𝑇2] 𝑟1𝑟2 [ 𝑇1−𝑇2] 𝑟1𝑟2

𝑟1− 𝑟2 𝑟 𝑟1
𝑟1 −
T= +
1 T +

𝑟2

This equation gives the temperature distribution along the radius of the sphere.

To find the heat transfer

𝜹𝑻 𝛿𝑇 𝐶1 [ 𝑇1−𝑇2] 1
Q = −K A = = 𝑟 𝑟
𝜹𝒓
we have,
𝛿𝑟 𝑟 𝑟1 − 1 2
𝑟2
2
𝑟2
[ 𝑇1−𝑇2] 1
Q = −K [4 𝜋𝑟2] 𝑟 𝑟
1 2
𝑟1 − 𝑟2 𝑟2

[ ∆𝑇
𝑇
Q1=−𝑇2]
4 𝜋𝐾 ( 𝑟2− 𝑟1)
𝑅𝑡ℎ
=
𝑟 1𝑟 2
1
∴ 𝑅𝑡ℎ=
4 𝜋𝐾 ( 𝑟 −
2 𝑟2
𝑟 )𝑟
1 1

(iii) Composite Sphere

Insulation: Insulation is the material which decreases the heat flow. The purpose of insulation is
(i) To prevent the heat loss from the system to the surroundings.
Ex: Boilers, steam pipes, furnaces, etc.
(ii) To prevent the heat flow from surroundings to the

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system Ex; Refrigerators, food processing stores, etc.

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Critical thickness of Insulation

The addition of insulation at the outside surface of small pipes may not reduce the rate of
heat transfer. When insulation is added on the outer surface of a bare pipe, its
outer radius, r0 increases and this increases the thermal resistance due to conduction
logarithmically whereas the thermal resistance to heat flows due to fluid film on the outer
surface decreases linearly with increasing radius, r0. Since the total thermal resistance is
proportional to the sum of these two resistances, the rate of heat flow may not decrease as
insulation is added to the bare pipe.

The thickness up to which heat flow increases and after which heat flow
decreases is termed as critical thickness.

Critical thickness = Critical radius – Radius of cylinder

Tc = rc – r1

Critical radius of cylinder

Consider a pipe (cylinder) insulated by the insulating material and carrying hot fluid within
the pipe. The Rate of heat transfer from the outer surface of the cylinder to ambient air is
given by

∆𝑇
Q𝑅
=𝑡ℎ
Outer surface temperature of the pipe−Ambient temperature
Q𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙+𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑇1−𝑇𝑜
Q𝑅=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛+ 𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑇1−𝑇𝑜
𝑟2
ln 𝑟1
Q=
1
+ 𝜋𝐿𝑟
2 π LK 2 2
ℎ𝑜

In order to obtain Qmax, the denominator must be minimum

For this the condition is d

dr2
ln 𝑟2
+2 πLK
𝑟1
[
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HEAT TRANSFER

1 2 𝜋𝐿𝑟2ℎ𝑜 =0
d
ln r2 –ln
+
1 ] =0
dr 𝑟 2𝜋𝐿𝑟2
i.e
2 [ 1
2 πLK ℎ𝑜

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(1−0 1 (0−1)
+
1
) 𝑟 𝑟22
2𝜋𝐿
=0
2 2 ℎ𝑜
πLK

1
] =0
[𝐾 −
1
1
2
𝑟
22
πL 𝑟2
1
ℎ
𝑜

1
= 1 1
𝐾 𝑟2 ℎ
𝑟2
𝑜 2
𝐊
∴ 𝐫 𝟐=
𝐡
𝐨

Critical thickness of sphere

Consider a sphere insulated by the insulating material and stored hot fluid within. The Rate of
heat transfer from the outer surface of the sphere to ambient air is given by

∆𝑇
Q = 𝑅𝑡ℎ

Outer surface temperature of the sphere−Ambient temperature

Q = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙+𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑇1−𝑇𝑜
Q = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛+ 𝑅𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑂
Q = 1 (𝑟 (−
2 𝑟1 ) 1
[ +
4𝜋 𝑟1𝑟2𝐾 ℎ𝑜𝑟22

In order to obtain Qmax, the denominator must be minimum

[ +
( 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 )1
For this the condition is
2

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dr2 𝑟1 𝑟2 ℎ 𝑜 𝑟2
𝐾

[𝑟1 − 𝑟2 +
d
1 1
] =0
dr
𝐾 𝐾
2 1
(0−2𝑟ℎ2𝑜𝑟2
) 2
2
1 (0−1)
0− 2
K r2 ℎ𝑜𝑟4
+ =0

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1 1
2𝑟2
K r2
2 ℎ𝑜𝑟24
= =0
𝟐𝐊
∴
𝐡𝐨
𝐫 𝟐=

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