Fundamentals Physics

Twelfth Edition
Halliday

Chapter 4
Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

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Section 4.1 Position and Displacement

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Position and Displacement Learning
Objectives
• Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional position
vectors for a particle, indicating the components along the
axes of a coordinate system.
• On a coordinate system, determine the direction and
magnitude of a particle's position vector from its
components, and vice versa.
• Apply the relationship between a particle’s displacement
vector and its initial and final position vectors.

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Position Vector: Definition

• A position vector locates a particle in space

o Extends from a reference point (origin) to the particle
r = xˆi + yˆj + zkˆ Equation (4.1.1)

Example
Position vector (−3m, 2m, 5m)

r = ( −3 m ) ˆi + ( 2 m ) ˆj + ( 5 m ) kˆ

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Position Vector = Sum of Components

Figure 4.1.1

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Position vs. Displacement

• Change in position vector is a displacement

r = r2 − r1. Equation (4.1.2)

• We can rewrite this as:

r = ( x2 − x1 ) ˆi + ( y2 − y1 ) ˆj + ( z2 − z1 ) kˆ Equation (4.1.3)

• Or express it in terms of changes in each coordinate:

r = xˆi + yˆj + zkˆ Equation (4.1.4)

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Section 4.2 Average and Instantaneous
Velocity

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Average Velocity and Instantaneous
Velocity Learning Objectives
• Identify that velocity is a vector quantity and thus has both
magnitude and direction and also has components.
• Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional velocity
vectors for a particle, indicating the components along the
axes of the coordinate system.
• In magnitude-angle and unit-vector notations, relate a
particle’s initial and final position vectors, the time interval
between those positions, and the particle’s average velocity
vector.
• Given a particle’s position vector as a function of time,
determine its (instantaneous) velocity vector.
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Average Velocity: Definition

• Average velocity is
o A displacement divided by its time interval

r
vavg = Equation (4.2.1)
t

• We can write this in component form:

xˆi + yˆj + zkˆ x ˆ y ˆ z ˆ

vavg = = i+ j+ k Equation (4.2.2)
t t t t

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Average Velocity: Example

A particle moves through displacement (12 m)i + (3.0 m)k in 2.0 s:

r (12 m ) ˆi + ( 3.0 m ) kˆ
vavg = = = ( 6.0 m s ) ˆi + (1.5 m s ) kˆ
t 2.0s

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Average Velocity vs. Instantaneous
Velocity
Instantaneous velocity is defined as:
o The velocity of a particle at a single point in time
o The limit of avg. velocity as the time interval shrinks to 0

dr
v= Equation (4.2.3)
dt

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Graphical Average vs. Instantaneous
Velocity

Figure 4.2.1 Figure 4.2.2

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Instantaneous Velocity: Vector
Notation
The direction of the instantaneous velocity v of a particle is
always tangent to the particle’s path at the particle’s position.
• In unit-vector form, we write:

v=
dt
(
d ˆ ˆ ˆ dx
)
dy dz
xi + yj + zk = ˆi + ˆj + kˆ
dt dt dt
• Which can also be written:

v = vx ˆi + v y ˆj + vz kˆ Equation (4.2.4)

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Magnitudes of Instantaneous Velocity
Vector Components
dx dy dz
vx = , v y = , and vz = . Equation (4.2.5)
dt dt dt
Subscripts x, y, and z denote the vector direction

• Note: a velocity vector does not extend from one point to

another, only shows direction and magnitude

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Instantaneous Velocity Checkpoint #1
Question
The figure shows a circular path taken by a particle. If the
instantaneous velocity of the particle is v = ( 2 m s ) ˆi − ( 2 m s ) ˆj,
through which quadrant is the particle moving at that instant if it
is traveling (a) clockwise and (b) counterclockwise around the
circle? For both cases, draw v on the figure.

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Instantaneous Velocity Checkpoint #1
Answer

(a) Quadrant I

(b) Quadrant III

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Section 4.3 Average and Instantaneous
Acceleration

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Average Acceleration and Instantaneous
Acceleration Learning Objectives
• Recognize that acceleration is a vector quantity, and thus has
both magnitude and direction.
• Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional acceleration
vectors for a particle, indicating the components.
• Given the initial and final velocity vectors of a particle and the
time interval, determine the average acceleration vector.
• Given a particle's velocity vector as a function of time,
determine its (instantaneous) acceleration vector.
• For each dimension of motion, apply the constant-acceleration
equations (Chapter 2) to relate acceleration, velocity, position,
and time.
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Average vs. Instantaneous
Acceleration: Definitions
• Average acceleration is
o A change in velocity divided by its time interval
v2 − v1 v
aavg = =
t t Equation (4.3.1)
v2 = final velocity, v1 = initial velocity

• Instantaneous acceleration is again the limit t → 0:

dv
a= Equation (4.3.2)
dt

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Instantaneous Acceleration: Vector
Notation
• We can write Eq. 4.3.2 in unit-vector form:

a=
d
dt
(
vx ˆi + v y ˆj + vz kˆ )
dvx ˆ dv y ˆ dvz ˆ
= i+ j+ k
dt dt dt

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Magnitude of Instantaneous
Acceleration Components
• We can rewrite as:
a = ax ˆi + a y ˆj + az kˆ Equation (4.3.3)

dvx dv y dv
ax = , ay = , and az = z Equation (4.3.4)
dt dt dt

• To get the components of acceleration, we differentiate the

components of velocity with respect to time

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Instantaneous Acceleration Vector Acting
on a Particle Traveling on a Path

Figure (4.3.1)

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Acceleration Vector Specific to Particular
Points
• Note: as with velocity, an acceleration vector does not
extend from one point to another, only shows direction and
magnitude

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Average vs. Instantaneous Acceleration:
Checkpoint #2 Question
Below are four descriptions of the position (in meters) of a puck as
it moves in an xy plane:
(1) x = −3t 2 + 4t − 2 and y = 6t 2 − 4t
( 2 ) x = −3t 3 − 4t and y = −5t 2 + 6
( 3) r = 2t 2ˆi − ( 4t + 3) ˆj
( 4 ) r = ( 4t 3 − 2t ) ˆi + 3jˆ
Are the x and y acceleration components constant? Is the
acceleration vector constant?

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Average vs. Instantaneous Acceleration:
Checkpoint #2 Answers
1) ​x : yes, y : yes, a : yes
2) ​x : no, y : yes, a : no
3) ​x : yes, y : yes, a : yes
4) ​x : no, y : yes, a : no

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Section 4.4 Projectile Motion

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Projectile Motion Learning Objectives
• On a sketch of the path taken in projectile motion,
explain the magnitudes and directions of the velocity
and acceleration components during the flight.
• Given the launch velocity in either magnitude-angle or
unit-vector notation, calculate the particle's position,
displacement, and velocity at a given instant during the
flight.
• Given data for an instant during the flight, calculate
the launch velocity.

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Projectile: Definition

• A projectile is
o A particle moving in the vertical plane
o With some initial velocity
o Whose acceleration is always free-fall acceleration (g)
• The motion of a projectile is projectile motion
• Launched with an initial velocity v0
v0 = v0 x ˆi + v0 y ˆj Equation (4.4.1)

v0 x =v0 cos  0 and v0 y = v0 sin 0 Equation (4.4.2)

In projectile motion, the horizontal motion and the vertical motion
are independent of each other; that is, neither motion affects the
other.
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Effect of Horizontal Velocity
Component
The red and yellow balls are dropped at the same time, but the
yellow ball was shot horizontally (to the right) at the start of the fall.
• vertical motion the same for red
vs. yellow balls
• horizontal motion different
• red and yellow balls strike the
Figure 4.4.3
ground at the same time since
both have the same (zero) initial
velocity in the vertical direction.

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Projectile Motion Checkpoint #3

At a certain instant, a fly ball has velocity v = 25iˆ − 4.9ˆj

(the x axis is horizontal, the y axis is upward, and v is in meters per
second). Has the ball passed its highest point?

Answer:
Yes. The y-velocity is negative, so the ball is now falling.

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Horizontal Component of Projectile
Motion
Horizontal motion: No acceleration, so velocity is constant
(recall Eq. 2.4.5):

x − x0 = v0 xt.
x − x0 = ( v0 cos 0 ) t. Equation (4.4.3)

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Vertical Component of Projectile
Motion
Vertical motion: Acceleration is always -g (recall Eqs. 2.4.5, 2.4.1,
2.4.6)
1 2
y − y0 = v0 y t − gt
2
1 2
= ( v0 sin 0 ) t − gt , Equation (4.4.4)
2

v y = v0 sin 0 − gt Equation (4.4.5)

= ( v0 sin 0 ) − 2 g ( y − y0 ) .
2
v 2y Equation (4.4.6)

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Projectile Trajectory: Definition

• The projectile’s trajectory is

o Its path through space (traces a parabola)
o Found by eliminating time between Eqs. 4.4.3 and 4.4.4:

gx 2
y = ( tan  0 ) x − Equation (4.4.7)
2 ( v0 cos  0 )
2

Where: 0 is the projectile angle, y is the vertical height at any

time, x is the horizontal displacement at any time, and v0 is the
magnitude of the initial velocity.
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Horizontal Range: Definition

• The horizontal range is:

o The distance the projectile travels in x by the time it returns to its
initial height

v02
R = sin 20 . Equation (4.4.8)
g

The horizontal range R is maximum for a launch angle of

45°.

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Effect of Air Resistance

• In previous calculations we assumed air resistance is negligible,

but in many situation that is a poor assumption.
Table 4.4.1 Two Fly Ballsa

Path I (Air) Path II (Vacuum)

Range 98.5 m 177 m
Maximum height 53.0 m 76.8 m
Time of flight 6.6 s 7.9 s
aSee Fig. 4.4.6. The launch angle is 60° and the launch speed is 44.7 m/s.

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Effect of Air Resistance: Trajectories
of Two Fly Balls

Figure 4.4.6

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Projectile Motion Checkpoint #4
A fly ball is hit to the outfield. During its flight (ignore the effects
of the air), what happens to its (a) horizontal and (b) vertical
components of velocity? What are the (c) horizontal and (d) vertical
components of its acceleration during ascent, during descent, and at
the topmost point of its flight?
Answer:
(a) is unchanged
(b) decreases (becomes negative)
(c) 0 at all times
(d) −g (− 9.8 m/s2) at all times

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Section 4.5 Uniform Circular Motion

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Uniform Circular Motion Learning Objectives

• Sketch the path taken in uniform circular motion and

explain the velocity and acceleration vectors
(magnitude and direction) during the motion.
• Apply the relationships between the radius of the
circular path, the period, the particle's speed, and the
particle’s acceleration magnitude.

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Requirements for Uniform Circular
Motion
• A particle is in uniform circular motion if
o It travels around a circle or circular arc
o At a constant speed
• Since the velocity changes, the particle is
accelerating!
• Velocity and acceleration have:
o Constant magnitude
o Changing direction
• The constant change in direction of the
velocity is the reason why acceleration is
present, but speed is constant in the Figure 4.5.1
tangential direction.
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Centripetal Acceleration and Period
of Revolution: Definitions
• Acceleration is called centripetal acceleration
o Means “center seeking”
o Directed radially inward

v2
a= Equation (4.5.1)
r
• The period of revolution is:
o The time it takes for the particle go around the closed path exactly
once
where: T = period, r = radius of the circle, and v = velocity
2 r
T= Equation (4.5.2)
v
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Uniform Circular Motion
Checkpoint #5
An object moves at constant speed along a circular path in a
horizontal xy plane, with the center at the origin. When the
object is at x = −2 m, its velocity is − ( 4 m s ) ˆj
Give the object’s (a) velocity and (b) acceleration at y = 2 m.
Answer:
(
(a) − 4 m iˆ
s )
(
(b) − 8 m
s2) ˆj

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Section 4.6 Relative Motion in One
Dimension

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Relative Motion in One Dimension:
Learning Objectives
• Apply the relationship between a particle's position,
velocity, and acceleration as measured from two
reference frames that move relative to each other at a
constant velocity and along a single axis.

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Role of Reference Frames in
Determining Position and Velocity
• Measures of position and velocity
depend on the reference frame of the
measurer
o How is the observer moving?
o Our usual reference frame is that of the
ground
• Read subscripts “PA”, “PB”, and “BA”
as “P as measured by A”, “P as
measured by B”, and “B as measured
by A"
• Frames A and B are each watching the
movement of object P Figure 4.6.1

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Position & Velocity in Two Different
Reference Frames
• Positions in different frames are related by:

xPA = xPB + xBA Equation (4.6.1)

• Taking the derivative, we see velocities are related by:

d d d
( xPA ) = ( xPB ) + ( xBA ) Equation (4.6.2)
dt dt dt
vPA = vPB + vBA

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Acceleration with Respect to Two
Reference Frames
• But accelerations (for non-accelerating reference frames, aBA = 0)
are related by

d d d
( vPA ) = ( vPB ) + ( vBA )
dt dt dt
aPA = aPB Equation (4.6.3)

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Relative Reference Frames: Particle
Acceleration Measured by Frame A
Observers on different frames of reference that move at
constant velocity relative to each other will measure the
same acceleration for a moving particle.
Example
Frame A: x = 2 m, v = 4 m/s
Frame B: x = 3 m, v = −2 m/s
P as measured by A: xPA = 5 m, vPA = 2 m/s, a = 1 m/s2

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Relative Reference Frames: Particle
Acceleration Measured by Frame B
So P as measured by B:
o xPB = xPA + xAB = 5 m + (2m – 3m) = 4 m
o vPB = vPA + vAB = 2 m/s + (4 m/s – −2m/s) = 8 m/s
o a = 1 m/s2

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Section 4.7 Relative Motion in Two
Dimensions

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Relative Motion in Two Dimensions
Learning Objectives
• Apply the relationship between a particle's position,
velocity, and acceleration as measured from two
reference frames that move relative to each other at a
constant velocity and in two dimensions.

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Vector Representation of 2D Relative
Motion
• The same as in one dimension, but now with vectors:
• Positions in different frames are related by:
rPA = rPB + rBA Equation (4.7.1)

• Velocities:
vPA = vPB + vBA Equation (4.7.2)

• Accelerations (for non-accelerating reference frames):

aPA = aPB Equation (4.7.3)

• As was the case for 1D relative motion, observers in different
frames will see the same acceleration
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Graphical View of 2D Relative Motion

• Frames A and B are both observing the motion of P

Figure 4.7.1

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Chapter 4 Summary: Position &
Displacement Vectors
Position Vector
• Locates a particle in 3-space
r = xˆi + yˆj + zkˆ Equation (4.1.1)
Displacement
• Change in position vector

r = r2 − r1 Equation (4.1.2)

 r = ( x2 − x1 ) ˆi + ( y2 − y1 ) ˆj + ( z2 − z1 ) kˆ Equation (4.1.3)
= xˆi + yˆj + zkˆ
Equation (4.1.4)
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Chapter 4 Summary: Average vs.
Instantaneous Velocity and Acceleration
Average and Instantaneous Velocity
r
vavg = Equation (4.2.1)
t

dr
v= Equation (4.2.3)
dt
Average and Instantaneous Accel.
v2 − v1 v Equation (4.3.1)
aavg = =
t t
dv Equation (4.3.2)
a= .
dt
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Chapter 4 Summary: Projectile Motion
Projectile Motion
• Flight of particle subject only to free-fall acceleration (g)
1
y − y0 = v0 y t − gt 2 Equation (4.4.4)
2
1 2
= ( v0 sin 0 ) t − gt ,
2
v y = v0 sin 0 − gt Equation (4.4.5)

• Trajectory is parabolic path

gx 2
y = ( tan  0 ) x − Equation (4.4.7)
2 ( v0 cos  0 )
2

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Chapter 4 Summary: Projectile
Horizontal Range
• Horizontal range:

v02
R = sin 20 . Equation (4.4.8)
g

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Chapter 4 Summary: Uniform Circular
Motion
Uniform Circular Motion
• Magnitude of acceleration:

v2
a= Equation (4.5.1)
r

• Time to complete a circle:

2 r Equation (4.5.2)
T=
v

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Chapter 4 Summary: Relative Motion
Relative Motion
• For non-accelerating reference frames

vPA = vPB + vBA Equation (4.7.2)

aPA = aPB Equation (4.7.3)

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Biomedical Applications: Problem 24

In the 1991 World Track and Field Championships in Tokyo,

Mike Powell jumped 8.95 m, breaking by a full 5 cm the 23-
year long-jump record set by Bob Beamon. Assume that
Powell’s speed on takeoff was 9.5 m/s (about equal to that of a
sprinter) and that g = 9.80 m/s2 in Tokyo. How much less was
Powell’s range than the maximum possible range for a particle
launched at the same speed?

Answer: 0.259 m

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Biomedical Applications: Problem 51
A skilled skier knows to jump upwards before reaching a downward slope.
Consider a jump in which the launch speed is 0 = 10 m/s, the launch angle is 0 =
11.3, the initial course is approximately flat, and the steeper track has a slope of
9.0. Figure 4.22 (a) below shows a prejump that allows the skier to land on the
top portion of the steeper track. Figure 4.22 (b) below shows a jump at the edge
of the steeper track. In Figure 4.22 (a), the skier lands at approximately the
launch level.
Question (a) In the landing, what is the angle  between the skier’s path and the
slope? Question (b) How far below the launch level does the skier land.
Question (c) what is the angle  (The greater fall and greater  can result in low
of control in the landing.)

Answer: (a) 2.3, (b) 1.1 m, (c) 18

Figure 4.22

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Biomedical Applications: Problem 71

A suspicious-looking man runs as fast as he can along a

moving sidewalk from one end to the other, taking 2.50 s.
Then security agents appear, and the man runs as fast as he can
back along the sidewalk to his starting point, taking 10.0 s.
What is the ratio of the man’s running speed to the sidewalk’s
speed?

Answer: 1.67

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