Physics Notes - Class 12 / 2nd Year
Comprehensive Study Material
1. Laws of Motion
- Newton's First Law: A body remains in a state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an external
- Newton's Second Law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied f
- Formula: F = m * a.
- Newton's Third Law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
- Example Problem: A force of 20 N is applied on a 4 kg block. Find acceleration. Solution: a = F/m = 20/4
- [Diagram: Block on a horizontal surface with force applied →]
2. Work, Energy and Power
- Work is said to be done when a force is applied on a body and the body gets displaced.
- Formula: W = F * d * cosθ.
- Kinetic Energy: KE = 1/2 * m * v^2.
- Potential Energy: PE = m * g * h.
- Power: Rate of doing work, P = W / t.
- Example Problem: A 10 kg mass is lifted to 5 m. Work = mgh = 10*9.8*5 = 490 J.
3. Gravitation
- Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force called gravitational force.
- Formula: F = G * (m1 * m2) / r^2.
- Acceleration due to gravity: g = 9.8 m/s^2 near Earth's surface.
- Escape Velocity: v = √(2*g*R). For Earth, v ≈ 11.2 km/s.
- [Diagram: Earth with radius R, object escaping]
4. Oscillations and Waves
- Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM): A motion in which acceleration is directly proportional to displacement a
- Equation: a = -ω^2 * x.
- Time Period of a simple pendulum: T = 2π√(L/g).
- Wave speed: v = f * λ.
- Example Problem: A wave of frequency 100 Hz and wavelength 2 m has speed v = fλ = 200 m/s.
5. Current Electricity
- Ohm’s Law: V = I * R.
- Resistance depends on material, length, and area: R = ρL/A.
- Series Combination: R = R1 + R2 + ...
- Parallel Combination: 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + ...
- Example: Two resistors 4Ω and 6Ω in parallel → 1/R = 1/4 + 1/6 = 5/12 → R = 2.4Ω.
6. Optics
- Reflection: Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection.
- Mirror Formula: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u.
- Refraction: n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2 (Snell’s Law).
- Lens Formula: 1/f = 1/v - 1/u.
- Magnification: M = v/u.
- [Diagram: Ray diagram for concave mirror].
7. Modern Physics
- Photoelectric Effect: Emission of electrons from a metal surface when light falls on it.
- Equation: KE = hf - φ.
- Einstein’s Mass-Energy relation: E = mc^2.
- Bohr’s Model: Electrons revolve in fixed orbits around nucleus with quantized energy levels.
- Example: Energy of photon with wavelength 500 nm, E = hc/λ.
